Publications and Datasets

Transfers, information and management advice: Direct effects and complementarities in Malawi

We examine a program designed to alleviate credit, information, and farm management constraints among smallholder cash crop farmers through transfers and a cross-randomized program offering intensive agricultural extension. We document strong complementarities between the two sets of interventions. Investment driven by increased labor expenditures, production, and consumption are highest for farmers that received both transfers and intensive extension, a pattern that persists two and three years later. In the short run, transfers alone led to the reallocation of input expenditures into increased labor for cash crop cultivation, which led to increased production of project focal crops but not total crop production. While farmers in the transfers only group continue to spend more on labor in subsequent seasons, this does not lead to changes in production or consumption, suggesting that the support of the intensive extension was important for the generation of the largest welfare gains from the transfers.

Increasing women’s empowerment: Evaluating two interventions in Uganda

We conduct a randomized controlled trial to test a novel intervention for increasing women’s empowerment in Uganda. The intervention includes a within-household transfer of a productive asset, which has a lower cost than an external transfer. We find that transferring control of some of the household’s sugarcane to the wife significantly increases her access to resources and decision-making power. We also document increases in women’s empowerment arising from a cross-randomized couples’ workshop that improved women’s self-concept and shifted beliefs in gender equality. We find no additional impacts from combining the two interventions. Importantly, neither intervention harms the household’s productivity or husbands’ welfare. In fact, men (and women) report higher marital quality and life satisfaction as a result. However, despite increasing women’s empowerment we find no evidence that the interventions increased measured household investment in food security, child health, or education.

How much do our neighbors really know? The limits of community-based targeting

Social assistance programs in developing countries often rely on local community members to identify potential beneficiaries. As community members may observe neighbors’ welfare, their reports may capture transitory shocks better than the proxies typically observable by a centralized policy implementer. To test this, we conduct a lab-style experiment in Central Java, in which participants rank other community members’ welfare, using benchmarks that vary in sensitivity to transitory shocks, and target small cash transfers. We find little evidence that community-held welfare information better reflects transitory shocks and find that targeting decisions mostly depend on perceived differences in overall wealth. JEL Codes: O12, I32, D83

Constraints and promising interventions to strengthen fish seed systems in Sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence from Ghana

CONTEXT Aquaculture has surpassed capture fisheries in terms of production and is among the fastest growing food sectors. It has great potential to contribute to food security and nutrition, poverty reduction, jobs, and environmental sustainability. Fish seed is increasingly considered to be a major driver and disabler of aquaculture development. However, little is known about how fish seed systems operate, their challenges and opportunities, or entry points for strengthening them. OBJECTIVE This study analyzes primary data on the challenges and opportunities faced by various actors along the fish seed chain, documents the lessons from a fish seed project (Ghana Tilapia Seed Project, 2019–2022), and provides an analysis of entry points for strengthening fish seed systems. METHODS Using an analytical framework that tracks germplasm base, seed production and quality, seed availability and distribution, and the information flow along the fish seed value chain, we analyze the case of Ghana, the top producer of farmed tilapia in sub-Saharan Africa. The study uses a mixed-methods approach, including value chain analysis, action-oriented research methods, and statistical analysis of survey data. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS Findings indicate that the initial rapid growth in tilapia production in Ghana was partly due to an improved local strain released in 2004; however, the recent stagnation is largely caused by seed-related issues (poor maintenance and improvement of germplasm base, seed quality and availability, lack of information and coordination, and lack of enforcement of regulations). This study highlights the successes and lessons learned from the Ghana Tilapia Seed Project on broodstock distribution, training on fingerling production, establishment of nurseries, and training of fish farmers. The lessons highlight the need for policy changes and capacity building related to strain development and broodstock management. SIGNIFICANCE These findings fill the large gap in evidence on the functioning of fish seed systems and how to strengthen them. They can directly inform ongoing country-level efforts and programs aiming to develop aquaculture.

COVID-19 and rural livelihoods: Lessons from a longer-term assessment and the path to recovery

The COVID-19 pandemic had profound effects on livelihoods across rural populations worldwide. Building on earlier work that examined the initial effects of the pandemic on food security and nutrition among smallholder agricultural households in the Western Highlands of Guatemala, this study offers a longer-term assessment of the impacts and the path to recovery. We rely on a unique longitudinal survey of 1,262 households conducted over four rounds between 2019 and 2022, with the first round in person and the subsequent ones by phone. The results show substantial recoveries in food security and dietary diversity in the region by mid-2022 compared to 2020, but at levels still worse than pre-pandemic ones for some indicators. There is also a sustained increase in the intention to emigrate. The households that were initially more affected in terms of food security and nutrition but recovered faster include those located in one of the three studied departments and families living above the poverty line, while smallholders affected by hurricanes, non-coffee producers, and indigenous populations took longer to recover. We additionally provide quantitative estimates for a subsample of households interviewed in person during a fifth survey round at the end of 2022, showing an average decline of about 16 percent in total household income three years after the start of the pandemic, mainly driven by a decrease in agricultural income, combined with a 26-percent increase in expenditures and an important surge in indebtedness. Overall, the study offers valuable lessons regarding the recovery of vulnerable households following a major global crisis and in a context of additional shocks.

Estimating multidimensional development resilience

Existing measures of resilience are typically based on a single well-being indicator. This is problematic in contexts where households face deprivations across multiple dimensions. We develop a multidimensional resilience measure, integrating probabilistic moment-based resilience measurement approaches with multidimensional poverty measurement methods. Applying these to household panel data from Ethiopia, we show that univariate and multidimensional resilience measures based on expenditure-based poverty, dietary diversity, and livestock asset holdings can yield varied inferences on the ranking of households as well as potential impact of development interventions. Univariate resilience measures constructed using consumption expenditure, dietary diversity and livestock asset holdings show distinct temporal and spatial distributional patterns. But while univariate measures are weakly correlated with one another and with different well-being metrics, multivariate measures exhibit much stronger rank correlations. When we contrast univariate measures of resilience to multidimensional measures of resilience, we find that the latter vary less over the study period; multidimensional resilience measures seem to capture more “persistent or structural” vulnerability and associated capacity of households. We also demonstrate the differences in these univariate and multivariate measures, including the potential of the composite multidimensional resilience measures for supporting targeting processes.

Agricultural mechanization

Higher altitude stunts children’s physical growth: A systematic review and meta-analysis

How can anticipatory action programming support women? Application of the reach-benefit-empower-transform framework in Nepal and Nigeria

Exposure and disease burden of fumonisins and aflatoxins from sorghum consumption in Ethiopia

Studies on mycotoxin exposure from sorghum consumption and related public health risk estimation are rarely available in Ethiopia. The aim of this research was to assess fumonisin and aflatoxin exposure of adults through sorghum consumption in the Amhara National Regional State (ANRS) and at national level in Ethiopia and to estimate related health risks. Data on fumonisin and aflatoxin concentrations in sorghum samples were collected from a survey and literature. Estimated fumonisin exposure in the ANRS and at national level were below the FAO/WHO limit of 2000 ng/kg bw day to be considered a health concern. The estimated aflatoxin exposure levels in the ANRS and at national level fall below the Margin of Exposure value of 10000, indicating potential health concern. The incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma due to aflatoxin exposure in the ANRS ranges from 0.0003 to 0.017 while at national level, it ranges from 0.181 to 8.47 (per100.000 persons/year). The related disability-adjusted life years estimates for the ANRS and at national level ranged from 0.0003 to 0.019 and 0.204 to 11.230, respectively. Aflatoxin exposures were driven more by sorghum intake than aflatoxin contamination. Dietary intervention could further reduce the health risk estimates.

Vouchers to increase fruit affordability in Nigeria and Vietnam

Although fruits are an important part of healthy diets, they are relatively expensive, so most individuals consume less than recommended. We use a randomized control trial to study a voucher program designed to improve the affordability of fruits in peri-urban and urban settings in Vietnam and Nigeria, and analyze whether vouchers can increase fruit consumption. The trial took place in 2021 among 601 households in Vietnam and 611 households in Nigeria. Vouchers were distributed between March and July in Vietnam and between June and November in Nigeria. In both contexts, a large majority of consumers who received vouchers used them. Following project conclusion, we find suggestive evidence of sustained increased fruit consumption only in Vietnam. In Nigeria, vouchers increased consumption of certain fruit categories during program implementation, but we find no evidence of sustained impacts. Fruit consumption is higher across the board in Vietnam, and the sample is wealthier overall, suggesting fruit affordability may not be a binding constraint for consumption. In Nigeria, the increase in consumption during the program along with a post-project decline suggest a lack of household resources to sustain consumption once the project concluded. The results suggest vouchers can improve consumption of healthy foods like fruits, but other actions are needed to make them more affordable in the longer term.

Gendered networks and demand for an agricultural technology in India

Studies on social learning and technology adoption often only consider the networks of a single individual in a household as a source of information influencing agricultural production decisions. We test the validity of this assumption by examining the role of men’s and women’s social networks in the adoption of a novel water-saving technology, laser land leveling (LLL), in India. Using network data from men and women in the same household, we test the influence of being connected to an adopter on demand for LLL. We identify the causal gender-specific network effects using a field experiment that combines an auction with a lottery for the technology, making the presence of adopters in networks exogenous. The data reveal that men’s and women’s networks vary in size and show little overlap. We find that whereas household demand for LLL increases when men are linked to an LLL-adopting household, it decreases when the network linkages run through women. These gender-differentiated effects are concentrated in households where the woman’s opinion about the technology is valued by the man and in non-poor households. The results highlight that social learning may interact with the socio-demographic characteristics of households in myriad ways to influence household technology adoption decisions, and that agricultural-based information interventions ought to also consider how information gets used in the household. JEL classification: D13; Q12; Q16

The effect of using indigenous and scientific forecasts on arable farmers’ crop yields: Evidence from Rwenzori region, western Uganda

What are the economic and poverty implications for Sudan if the conflict continues through 2025?

The ongoing conflict in Sudan, which began in April 2023, has triggered severe economic contractions, exacerbating poverty and unemployment while disrupting key sectors of the economy. This study employs an updated economywide database to assess the economic impact of a continued conflict through the end of 2025 under two scenarios of extreme and moderate contractions in the overall GDP. Our findings indicate that by the end of 2025, Sudan’s GDP would decline by 42% under the extreme scenario and 32% under the moderate scenario. The agrifood system would be particularly affected, with its GDP contracting by 33.6% and employment halving under the extreme scenario. Household incomes decline across all quintiles, with rural populations and women experiencing the sharpest losses. The national poverty rate is projected to rise by 19 percentage points under the extreme scenario, further deepening socioeconomic vulnerabilities. To mitigate the widespread adverse impacts of the conflict on the Sudanese economy, policies and interventions should prioritize the restoration of economic productivity, support the agrifood system and employment recovery strategies, and ensure that social protection measures are accessible to all households facing increased deprivation.

Using best-worst scaling to inform agroecological interventions in Western Kenya

Both the demand for food and the environmental impacts of food production are estimated to significantly increase by 2050. Agroecological interventions have proven effective in facilitating the transition from current food production systems to more sustainable ones. These interventions can not only ensure more equitable food and nutritional security but also address poverty and reduce environmental impacts. As such, agroecological interventions can generate both private and public ecosystem services. Farmers play a key role in how food is produced, as the practices they use are linked with their preferences and expertise, as well as the constraints they face. Understanding farmers’ preferences for the adoption of different agroecological practices and their perceptions of the associated costs and benefits is critical to informing policies that can effectively support farmers in transitioning to more sustainable practices, including those that contribute to the generation of ecosystem services highly valued by broader society. To assess such preferences, we conducted a survey among farmers in Western Kenya which included a best-worst scaling experiment augmented by qualitative questions about the reasons for farmers’ views about the importance of the benefits arising from agroecological practices. Results show that farmers have strong preferences for adopting agroecological practices that generate private goods and are directly related to increasing productivity and food security, including improving health of household members. These may also include practices that have some public good elements as well, such as increasing agrobiodiversity. However, practices that generate broader public good benefits, including improved forest quality/coverage, reduced off-farm environmental impacts, greater community-level resilience to shocks, and improved landscape and wildlife management, were less important to farmers. Such findings can be used to inform policies that support farmer adoption of agroecological interventions best suited to different farming communities, as well as indicating the need for additional types of market-based incentives, such as through Payments for Ecosystem Service mechanisms.

When water runs out: Adaptation to gradual environmental change in Indian agriculture

Increasing water scarcity will affect hundreds of millions of smallholder farmers in coming decades, but little is known about the likely forms of adaptation. This study exploits a natural experiment in which heterogeneous geological formations affect the rate of groundwater depletion across 40 villages in Gujarat, India, to provide novel evidence on this question. The analysis reveals that greater water scarcity leads to widespread declines in irrigated agriculture and enhanced migration to cities, but only among dominant socio-economic groups. No evidence is found of substantial compensating investments in water-efficient technologies or in human capital, despite farmers having long been aware of the decline in water levels.

Disruptions to agrifood value chains in fragile and conflict-affected states: Evidence from Myanmar

Agrifood value chains (AVCs) play crucial roles in food security in fragile and conflict-affected economies where there are widespread challenges and disruptions to business operations, food access, and incomes. Yet, given these challenges, safe data collection is challenging in conflict-affected settings and, as a result, the evidence on the disruptions AVC businesses face is thin. In this paper, we rely on novel panel data from AVC businesses in Myanmar, one of 7 countries in the world with extreme conflict. This short paper documents the disruptions experienced by businesses at several levels of the food supply chain, including farmers, input retailers, crop traders, rice millers, and food vendors. We also provide evidence on the implications for prices by analyzing price changes over this period: farm input and sales prices using farm survey data, food retail using data from food vendors, and dietary cost estimates combining consumption and price data. Our results highlight vulnerabilities in food supply chains in fragile and conflict-affected settings. Potential opportunities to strengthen food supply chains in such settings include ensuring access to banking and financial services; minimizing transportation disruptions to mitigate widening gaps between producer and consumer prices; and maintaining access to fuel and electricity as well as cellphone internet networks. Efforts to support these areas could stabilize food availability and reduce food prices, while also increasing farm-gate shares of food prices thereby supporting rural incomes. JEL codes: Q13; Q11; 013

Saving lives through technology: Mobile phones and infant mortality

Diets, fruit and vegetables consumption, and nutritional status in Benin: A scoping review

Unhealthy diets, including low fruit and vegetables (F&V) intake, contribute to morbidity and mortality related to non-communicable diseases. Designing culturally appropriate interventions to improve diets and F&V intake requires an in-depth understanding of individual-level dietary patterns, household consumption patterns, and nutritional status resulting from inadequate F&V intake. In this scoping review, we summarised the literature on diets, F&V intake, and nutritional status in Benin. We searched PubMed from 2012 to August 2024 to identify articles on diets and nutritional status, and from 2002 to August 2024 to identify articles on F&V intake. We included 36 articles on diets, 27 on F&V intake, and 16 on nutritional status. Existing literature demonstrated that Beninese diets are cereal-based and monotonous, characterised by low diversity and low F&V intake across all population groups. Available evidence indicated a high burden of undernutrition in children <5 years of age, a rising prevalence of overnutrition in women of reproductive age, and a high prevalence of overnutrition in adults. Evidence on how diets and F&V intake vary by urban/rural location, season, and socioeconomic characteristics was limited and inconsistent. Two evaluations of garden irrigation programmes assessed impacts on women's dietary diversity and F&V consumption. Additional research is needed to improve our understanding of diets, F&V intake, and diet-related nutritional challenges and how they evolve over time and across different population groups. Understanding these gaps can help identify entry points and targets for interventions to improve diet quality and F&V intake in Benin.

Wholesalers and the transformation of the “hidden middle” of the aquaculture value chain in Bangladesh

The rapid growth of aquaculture in Bangladesh over the past 30 years has been accompanied by a proliferation of wholesalers. Wholesalers are often assumed in academic and public discourse to be exploitative and inefficient: extracting rents rather than driving technological change. This view gives rise to development programs that seek to bypass marketing intermediaries or upgrade their practices. However, there has been little rigorous research on the behavior of wholesalers and its implications for outcomes of value chain performance, including food security. To address this gap, we implemented a statistically representative survey of 229 aquatic food wholesalers in 31 markets in one of Bangladesh’s most important aquaculture zones. We found the following. (1) The wholesale segment of the aquaculture value chain has grown rapidly. (2) Markets are increasingly competitive, with open auctions leading to disintermediation and transparent pricing. (3) Wholesale businesses operate on thin margins. (4) Very little food loss or waste occurs in the farm, wholesale, or retail value chain segments in the study zone. (5) Trading aquaculture products generates substantial employment for men but little for women. Contrary to popular belief, the midstream of the aquaculture value chain in southern Bangladesh is dynamic and efficient. The paper contributes to a growing literature highlighting the contributions that micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) in the “hidden middle” segments of agri-food value chains make to food security.

Understanding the evidence gaps: Diets and fruit and vegetable intake across five diverse low- and middle-income countries

Poor dietary quality, particularly inadequate fruit and vegetable (F&V) intake, remains a significant public health challenge globally. This article synthesizes findings from scoping reviews examining diet and F&V intake, and interventions to increase F&V consumption among population groups in five countries: Benin, Fiji, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and Tanzania. Our analysis confirms previous findings of inadequate F&V intake across all five countries, with most adults consuming well below the WHO recommendations of 400 g per day. Across the five countries, the identified scientific evidence is limited due to heterogeneous dietary assessment methods, limited coverage of population groups in national surveys and smaller studies, and limited data from rigorous evaluations of interventions aiming to increase F&V intake. Although all five countries have developed food-based dietary guidelines promoting F&V intake, research on their implementation and effectiveness remains limited. To build evidence for effective programmes and policies to improve both quantity and diversity of F&V intake, we identify three priority areas for future research: standardizing dietary assessment methods for use in surveys and evaluations, understanding context-specific drivers and determinants of F&V intake and strengthening intervention research in low-resource settings.

Dietary intake and nutrient adequacies among women of reproductive age in northern Tanzania: A cross-sectional study

Background Dietary inadequacies among women of reproductive age (WRA) increase malnutrition and disease risk. Objectives We characterized food group and nutrient inadequacies among WRA in rural Tanzania. Methods Baseline data (collected October 2023–January 2024) from a cluster-randomized controlled trial in Arusha and Kilimanjaro regions were analyzed. Dietary intake among WRA (n = 2594) was assessed using a 24-h dietary recall with the OpenDRS approach. This was repeated in a subsample (n = 520, 20%) to adjust for day-to-day variations in individual intake. The National Cancer Institute method was employed to estimate usual energy and nutrient intakes. Micronutrient adequacy was defined as intake greater than or equal to the harmonized average requirements (H-ARs). The mean probability of adequacy (MPA) was calculated as the average adequacy across 11 micronutrients. Results On average, women were 38.3 ± 6.2 y old; 19% were lactating, and 4% were pregnant. The mean daily energy intake was 2415 kcal/d [95% confidence interval (CI): 1937, 2895], with carbohydrates contributing 62% to daily energy intake. The mean intake of fruit and vegetables (F&V) was 279 g/d (95% CI: 201, 365), of which fruit was 35 g/d (95% CI: 2, 118) and vegetables 245 g/d (95% CI: 168, 328). Staples contributed half of the daily energy intake. About 1% of participants met calcium and vitamin B12 requirements, whereas 42%, 49%, 68%, and 72% met adequacy for vitamin C, folate, zinc, and iron, respectively. Most women met the H-ARs for riboflavin, niacin, thiamine, vitamin B6, and vitamin A. MPA was 65 (±2.3% standard error), with vegetables, pulses, animal-source foods (ASF), and staples being key micronutrient sources. Conclusions Substantial nutrient inadequacies exist among WRA in rural Northern Tanzania due to high cereal intake and low intake of F&V and ASF. Addressing these gaps requires targeted interventions, improved dietary diversity, increased intake of F&V and ASF, and enhanced food security through local production and social safety nets.

Price and volatility transmission from international to domestic food and fertilizer markets in Central America

Recent global shocks have triggered sharp spikes in international food and fertilizer prices, raising concerns about their domestic impacts. This study examines the extent to which international price levels and volatility are transmitted to domestic food and fertilizer markets in seven Central American countries. We follow a multivariate GARCH approach using monthly data over the period 2000–2024. While results vary by country and commodity, we find overall low to moderate elasticities of price transmission in levels, but a stronger degree of volatility transmission in the very short term (1-month). Interestingly, price transmission tends to strengthen after 3 months, whereas volatility transmission is more short-lived and appears to dissipate. The co-movement between international and domestic prices shows no apparent trend over time and lacks consistency across countries and commodities following major global events. Back-of-the-envelope simulations of higher international food and fertilizer prices suggest modest, though non-negligible, impacts on local consumer and producer welfare. JEL Classification: Q02, Q11, C32

A descriptive analysis of smartphone access and frontline service delivery during the COVID-19 lockdown in Chhattisgarh, India

A mixed‐method study on gender and intrahousehold differences in food consumption from Khatlon Province, Tajikistan

Tajikistan faces significant food insecurity and multiple forms of malnutrition in its population, with women particularly at risk. Social norms related to gender and intrahousehold hierarchy are pervasive. Yet, how gender impacts dietary intake in Tajikistan remains to be studied. Understanding this mechanism is critical to develop adequate strategies for effective, equitable progress in mitigating malnutrition and food insecurity. An explanatory sequential mixed-methods study was conducted to assess the extent and identify the drivers of gender-based and intrahousehold differences in dietary diversity in Khatlon Province, Tajikistan. Predictors of dietary diversity were statistically assessed using quantitative survey data from 1704 adults who participated in the 2023 USAID/IFPRI Population-Based Survey. Qualitative data from 12 focus group discussions, 19 individual interviews, and 21 Photovoice interviews were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis to further ascertain and understand these drivers. Gender was identified as a predictor of dietary diversity in both quantitative and qualitative findings. Women reported lower dietary diversity than men, even within in the same household. Gender norms contribute to unequal food distribution and opportunities to consume food away from the household. Expressing social values such as respect during mealtimes and perceptions of dietary needs prioritize men and children over women in consuming foods deemed more nutritious (e.g., meat). This study highlights the importance of considering household dynamics and gender roles in equitably addressing food and nutrition insecurity and malnutrition. Mitigating malnutrition in Tajikistan will necessitate gender equity-focused social behavior change interventions targeting women and men across different generations.

Promoting regional income equity under structural transformation and climate change: An economywide analysis for Senegal

Strengthening women’s resilience and participation in climate governance in the agrifood sector through public policies: A strategic review of literature

Women are uniquely vulnerable to climate change but play a critical role in enhancing the climate resilience of the agrifood sector. Based on a rapid review of academic and grey literature, this paper synthesizes the state of knowledge on the level of integration of gender aspects in climate change policies and women’s involvement in policy processes in the Global South. It examines women’s participation in climate change governance, strategies for enhancing this participation, and policy approaches to strengthen women’s resilience while addressing gender inequalities. Findings show that public policies often employ quotas, incentives, and capacity building initiatives to boost women’s participation in governance. However, meaningful engagement in higher-level decision-making remains limited, with quotas sometimes resulting in superficial involvement. Facilitating women’s access to agrifood resources, human capital, and economic opportunities, as well as addressing harmful gender norms, are identified as effective strategies to build resilience. Despite these promising approaches, gaps remain in the implementation and evaluation of policies aimed at enhancing women’s resilience and participation. The paper concludes by recommending outcome-oriented research and robust evaluations of public policy effectiveness in improving women’s climate resilience and governance roles.

Evaluating large-scale government investments in fertilizer adoption: The Ethiopian experience

We evaluate the impact of a large Government of Ethiopia intervention to raise fertilizer supply by establishing five fertilizer blending facilities supplying fertilizers tailored to local soil nutrient profiles. We rely on the phased geographic rollout of blending facility establishment to identify the causal effect on fertilizer use, application rates, crop yields, gross crop revenue, and household consumption. Combining effects of multiple treatment periods, each estimated using a doubly robust difference-in-difference model, we find that the blending facilities increased the probability that farmers adopt the new blended fertilizers by 22 percentage points and increased application rates by 17 kg/ha (baseline adoption was zero). The facilities mostly induced farmers who previously used DAP to switch to NPS, and we find large decreases in DAP adoption (by 22 percentage points, 47% of the control group base mean) and application rates (16 kg/ha, 52% of the control group base mean) yet no impact on overall fertilizer adoption or application rates. Though the new blended fertilizers were expected to perform better, there is no evidence they improved crop yields, crop gross revenue, or household consumption. The effect of the intervention was more pronounced (with larger increases in NPS use and larger decreases in DAP use) for farms located near demonstration plots, which the Government used to train farmers about the agronomic response to the new fertilizers. We confirm results using three large-scale longitudinal datasets and show that they are robust to choices of specification, treatment definition, and inference assumptions. JEL classification: O12, O13, Q16, Q18

Diets, fruit and vegetable intake and nutritional status among children, adolescents and adults in the Philippines: A scoping review

Suboptimal diets contribute to the risk of malnutrition and non-communicable diseases across the life course. Globally, intakes of fruit and vegetables (F&V) fall below recommendations, including in the Philippines. To promote F&V intakes, understanding the extent of inadequate intakes across population groups and key drivers of dietary patterns is needed. This narrative scoping review was conducted to map the diet, F&V intakes and nutritional status in the Philippines. PubMed was searched using keywords specific to diet, F&V intake, and nutritional status, with 50, 24 and 22 articles meeting the inclusion criteria for diet, F&V intake, and nutritional status, respectively. Available evidence indicates that across all population and sociodemographic groups, diets lacked diversity, with high intakes of energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods, such as refined rice and sugar-based foods and beverages, contributing to inadequate micronutrient intakes. Intakes of F&V were especially low across all population groups. Stunting/short height, wasting and underweight were prevalent among children and adolescents, and micronutrient deficiencies (iron, zinc, vitamin A) were common among children < 5 years of age. More than one-quarter of adults were overweight or obese and demonstrated poor cardiometabolic health. A lack of published evidence identified through this search reported on pregnant and lactating women and women of reproductive age. Published evaluations assessing the impact of interventions or programmes to improve diets or F&V intake were limited. Additional research to fill these gaps will help design interventions and target entry points to improve diet diversity and F&V intakes across all population groups.

Income aspirations and migration: Evidence from rural Tajikistan

In places with limited employment opportunities, households aspiring to increase their income are mainly left with two options: either (a) invest locally in their farm or non-farm enterprises, or (b) earn income elsewhere via migration. With survey data from 1,705 respondents from rural Tajikistan, we analyze the relationship between income aspirations and household investment strategies, and we contrast this to the relationship between income aspirations and international migration. We find evidence of a strong link between the income aspirations gap and international migration, but, strikingly, we do not observe any association between the income aspirations gap and local investment in farm or non-farm assets. These results suggest that households do not view local investment as a viable strategy for increasing income. Exploring heterogeneity, we find that these results can vary by household poverty status and household land endowments, but not by the respondent’s gender. Given the prominence of migration in the study area, this also suggests that remittances commonly serve different purposes than farm or non-farm investments — such as supporting households in their day-to-day expenditures or funding major ritual events.

Commuting, transport infrastructure and gender: Evidence from Indian metros

JEL Classification: J60; J68; R41; R50

Changes in height-for-age of Egyptian children from 1995 to 2014: Implications for improving child health outcomes

Background Stunting is a serious health problem in Egypt. Stunting rates and height-for-age z-score (HAZ) distributions changed notably in Egypt over time, yet the factors that led to these changes remain unknown. This study examines the factors associated with these changes and provides important considerations for designing interventions to achieve the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) of ending all forms of malnutrition by 2030. Methods Leveraging data from Egypt’s Demographic and Health Survey for the years 1995, 2003, and 2014, we employ a Recentered Influence Function (RIF) approach that goes beyond the conventional way of measuring stunting as a binary indicator to examine changes across the entire HAZ distribution. The RIF decomposes changes in the HAZ distribution over time into differences attributable to changes in the levels of the determinants of nutrition (covariate effects) and in the strength of the association between these determinants and HAZ (coefficient effects). Results The stylized facts show a puzzling increase in stunting rates despite improvements in the level of the determinants of nutrition. Our RIF results attribute the change in stunting rates and other parts of the HAZ distribution primarily to changes in the association between the determinants of nutrition and HAZ (coefficient effects) rather than in the level of the determinants (covariate effects). The results also show that the determinants of nutrition could have heterogeneous impacts at different quantiles of the HAZ distribution. Conclusion To reduce stunting rates and achieve the SDG of ending malnutrition, our findings highlight the need for targeted interventions. Interventions should be geographically targeted, promote gender and income equality, improve maternal nutrition, and expand access to better sanitation facilities. This is in addition to wealth redistribution and reforming Egypt’s subsidy program to focus on nutritious food.

Anaemia among mother-child dyads in India: Trends, drivers, and future projections

Anaemia among mothers and their children is a widespread public health challenge with profound consequences for individuals and societies. While anaemia has been studied separately in women and children, there remains a literature gap examining anaemia in mother-child dyads, limiting insights on interventions that may simultaneously address anaemia in both groups. Our study examines trends and drivers of anaemia among mother-child dyads (mothers aged 15–49 years and their children aged 6–59 months; N = 408,342) in India using nationally-representative data from 2006 to 2021 and estimates the potential future reduction in anaemia among mother-child dyads based on changes in selected drivers. We employed descriptive statistics, multivariable logistic regression and population attributable fraction (PAF) analysis. The co-occurrence of anaemia among mothers-child dyads changed very slightly, from 35% in 2006% to 33% in 2016 and to 37% in 2021. Subnational analyses revealed varying trends by states, with Delhi showing the highest increase (17%–32%) and Sikkim the largest decrease (29%–16%) between 2006 and 2021. Maternal education, regular consumption of nonvegetarian food and green leafy vegetables, consumption of iron folic acid supplements, utilization of government health services, and improved sanitation at both household and community levels were associated with lower likelihood of anaemia among mother-child dyads. The cumulative PAF suggested that addressing these factors collectively could reduce anaemia prevalence among mother-child dyads by 18% to 28% (under different scenarios) by 2030. The study underscores the need for comprehensive, multi-sectoral interventions targeting both maternal and child health to effectively combat anaemia in mother-child dyads.

Cooperation and the management of local common resources in remote rural communities

It is widely recognized that local management of common pool resources can be more efficient and more effective than private markets or top-down government management, especially in remote rural communities in which the institutions may be weak or prone to elite capture. In this paper, we explore the propensity for cooperation in the management of local common resources by introducing a variant of a public goods game among remote rural communities in the state of Odisha, in eastern India. We explore various patterns of cooperation, including free riding behaviour, unconditional cooperation and conditional cooperation, in which individuals’ propensity toward cooperation is tied to their beliefs about the level of cooperation among their peers. We find that a significant portion of our sample fall into this latter category, but also that their expectations about the level of contributions among their peers are somewhat malleable. JEL classification: Q32, Q12, C72

Representation increases women’s influence in climate deliberations: Evidence from community-managed forests in Malawi

Women’s inclusion is now the norm in global and local initiatives to combat climate change. We examine how women’s representation affects climate deliberations using the case of community-managed forests in Malawi. We run a lab-in-the-field experiment randomly varying the gender composition of six-member groups asked to deliberate on policies to combat local overharvesting. We find that any given woman has relatively more influence in group deliberations when women make up a larger share of the group, a change driven by men’s assessments of women’s influence. Women’s presence also shifts the content of deliberations toward prospective solutions for which women have socially recognized expertise (cooking and replanting). Despite these changes, women and men do not prefer different deforestation policies, and women’s presence does not meaningfully affect group decisions. Our work demonstrates how women’s presence shapes climate deliberations but also calls into question claims that women’s inclusion will necessarily affect climate decisions.

Unpacking the effects of conflict on fertilizer use and maize yields: Empirical evidence From Nigeria

Conventional recommendations emphasize increasing the use of inorganic fertilizer to enhance maize yields in African countries south of the Sahara, but it is not clear how smallholders’ exposure to violent conflicts affect demand, yield responses, and the profitability of fertilizers. Our study tackles this question. We analyze how maize yield responds to fertilizer use and assess the profitability of fertilizer use in conflict-affected settings. We then investigate how conflict impacts the profitability of fertilizer, given that armed conflicts are likely to increase input costs, logistical difficulties, and market uncertainties. Our study reveals that yield responses to nitrogen are very low in Nigeria. We also show that exposure to conflict reduces input use rates and decreases the marginal physical productivity of nitrogen in maize production, making investment in fertilizer less profitable. Recognizing this effect of conflict on input use and maize yield response is crucial for targeting and resource allocation decisions among smallholders in similar conflict-affected regions. Moreover, the effect of conflict highlights how external factors, beyond the scope of agronomic practices, influence the economic incentives for fertilizer application and the resulting yield outcomes.

Rural land rental markets in developing countries: Can survey design innovations improve land market participation statistics?

A longstanding puzzle in the African land rental market literature is the often-observed discrepancy between the number of tenants (renters-in) and the much smaller number of landlords (renters-out) in survey data. If this discrepancy derives from systematic biases in survey data responses on rental market participation, then the existing body of survey-based empirical work on land rental markets impacts may be fundamentally flawed. To examine this issue, we implemented two survey experiments. First, we tested the hypothesis that some categories of rented land are underreported because enumerators and respondents focus primarily on parcels directly managed or cultivated by the household. A random subset of respondents received a priming nudge reminding them to account for all land, including rented- or sharecropped-in and rented- or sharecropped-out parcels. Second, we tested whether households underreport rented- or sharecropped-out land due to reluctance to disclose activities that may carry social or institutional repercussions, using a double-list experiment to infer true rates of participation. Interestingly, our results indicate a significant underreporting of both renting-in and renting-out land but arising through different mechanisms. The priming nudge increased reports of renting-/sharecropping-in by 4 percentage points (equivalent to 13% of landlords in the sample) but had negligible effects on reported renting-/sharecropping-out. By contrast, the list experiment suggests that the true share of renting-out households is about 15%: much higher than the 3% in parcel-roster responses. These results underscore the need for improved survey methods to accurately observe land rental market participation and evaluate its impact.

Innovation environment and entrepreneurial intentions among undergraduate students in Nigeria: The moderating role of entrepreneurial education

Basis risk, social comparison, perceptions of fairness, and demand for insurance: A field experiment in Ethiopia

Index insurance lowers agricultural risk but covers only covariate risks. Since farmers do not have complete insurance, they may develop mistrust of insurance when experiencing crop losses and not receiving payouts. Although recent innovations in remote sensing enable the provision of more complete insurance including coverage for idiosyncratic risks, such insurance introduces differences in payouts within social networks, which might be considered unfair, introduce jealousy, and depress insurance demand. We conduct a lab-in-the-field experiment with farmers in Ethiopia to examine whether providing complete insurance coverage affects perceived fairness and insurance demand. We also examine effects of informing farmers about neighbors’ payout experiences. We find that such social comparison increases perceived fairness of index insurance. Providing complete crop insurance increases perceived fairness of outcomes and willingness to pay for insurance, without introducing jealousy over neighbors receiving different payouts. These results are concentrated among men and those with little insurance knowledge.

Multi-stakeholder platforms for enabling agroecological transitions: Configurations and lessons from seven agroecological living landscapes

Agroecological transition (AET) of agrifood systems is a multidimensional process involving diverse stakeholders. Participatory innovation and co-creation of knowledge are also at the heart of agroecology. Deliberately designed Multi-stakeholder platforms (MSPs) are collaborative spaces conducive to driving this type of collaboration and change. However, how these processes are operationalized is poorly documented. This study contributes to filling this gap by highlighting how MSPs can be important vehicles for enabling AETs. As part of the CGIAR Initiative on Agroecology, Agroecological Living Landscapes (ALLs) were set up as MSPs specifically focusing on co-creation of agroecological innovations. By examining different ALL configurations in seven countries, we analyze MSP attributes that can enable and shape AETs at different stages or “levels” of the transition pathway. We find that MSPs can advance different levels of the transition pathway simultaneously by working on multiple innovations involving various stakeholder coalitions. MSPs navigate complex environments, with diverse stakeholders playing multiple policy and non-policy roles to support AETs. The results also illustrate the intersection between MSP configuration and AET objectives, such as policy change, agroecology market support, and scaling adoption. Finally, we discuss the non-linear nature of AET pathways and political economy considerations for stakeholder engagement in MSPs.

Network effects in household consumption patterns: Evidence from northern Ghana

We study peer effects in consumption patterns and their associated welfare implications among rural farm households in northern Ghana using a panel data set. We construct a social interaction network based on household-specific locations and employ a spatial econometric approach that leverages the structure of the peer networks to identify peer effects. The results indicate that peers’ consumption patterns significantly influence individual consumption decisions, with the magnitude of this effect varying across farm households depending on their resource endowments. We also find that information exchange and partial risk-sharing behaviors drive these peer effects. Overall, our findings suggest that government interventions aimed at enhancing household consumption through transfers would be more effective if targeted at households with relatively large peer networks. In addition, anti-poverty and income-improvement programs can leverage peer networks to enhance their overall impact.

Buyers’ response to third-party quality certification: Theory and evidence from Ethiopian wheat traders

When quality attributes of a product are not directly observable, third-party certification (TPC) enables buyers to distinguish between quality levels and reward sellers accordingly. We study the adoption of TPC by traders in smallholder-based agricultural value chains in low-income countries, where traders aggregate products from many small-scale producers before selling in bulk to downstream processors. In this context, the introduction of TPC services has oftentimes failed. We develop a theoretical model identifying how different market conditions affect traders’ choice to purchase certified output from farmers. Next, using a novel lab-in-the-field experiment with Ethiopian wheat traders, we examine the model’s predictions. Traders’ willingness to specialize in certified output increases with the share of certified wheat in the market, and this effect is stronger in larger markets. However, we find that traders do not optimally respond to variation in the quality of uncertified wheat in the market. We also analyze conditions where traders deviate from optimal behavior and discuss implications for research and policy making to promote TPC in smallholder-based value-chains. JEL Codes: Q13; D22; O13; C93

Modeling crop-livestock interactions in semi-subsistence economies

Climate and weather shocks pose significant threats to crop and livestock systems, leading to economic losses and humanitarian crises. Utilizing a modeling framework that innovatively integrates the crop and livestock production systems in semi-subsistence economies, this study examines the interactions and dynamic adjustments within these systems following weather shocks, using Ethiopia as a case study. We also evaluate the effectiveness of various adaptation strategies in sustaining farm incomes, food security, and welfare. Results show unique effects on the crop and livestock sectors resulting from a joint shock on the two systems. While food crops experience a strong and immediate growth effect (12.4%) that fades quickly, the livestock sector faces the full impact of the shock a year later (13.7%), with the effect persisting to some degree. We also find diverging economic and livestock system adjustment trajectories from separate shocks to the crop and livestock systems. Further, the intervention options analyzed show contrasting impacts on various outcome indicators, with only the resilient crop intervention causing sector-indifferent impacts. Our findings emphasize the importance of proactive measures to enhance the resilience of crop-livestock systems, with implications for policy and practice aimed at safeguarding food security and livelihoods in semi-subsistence economies. JEL Classification: C68, Q18, Q54, I32, O55

Diet, fruit and vegetable intake, and nutritional status in Fiji: A scoping review

Increasing fruit and vegetable (F&V) intake is essential for transitioning toward healthier, more sustainable diets. To design effective intervention programmes to promote F&V intake, it is crucial to understand intake levels and dietary patterns across different demographic groups as well as populations’ nutritional status. We conducted a scoping review to summarise scientific evidence on the diet, F&V intake and nutritional status of the Fijian population. In January 2023, we searched PubMed for relevant literature. Studies were eligible if they were published in English since 2012 (for dietary intake and nutritional status) or since 2002 (for F&V) and met predefined inclusion criteria. We identified 163 articles reporting on diet, 47 on F&V intake and 95 on nutritional status. After further review and confirmation that articles met inclusion criteria, data were extracted from 16 articles on diet, 8 on F&V and 13 on nutritional status. The scoping review revealed a shift in Fiji from traditional foods to processed, unhealthy foods, high salt intake and poor dietary diversity. F&V intake was low, with only a quarter of adults and adolescents consuming the recommended daily servings. Approximately 7% of children under-five were stunted, and 8% were overweight. At least 25% of adolescents were overweight or obese, whereas 10% were underweight. Over 30% of adults were obese, and at least 25% were overweight. Overweight/obesity was higher in females and Indigenous Fijians; underweight higher among Indo-Fijian adolescents, especially males. Strengthening population-wide efforts to promote healthy lifestyles and dietary habits is crucial to address these issues.

Women’s dietary diversity and child feeding practices amidst COVID19 in India: Findings from National Family Health Surveys, 2016–2021

The COVID-19 pandemic caused a crisis that jeopardized food consumption and dietary diversity. This study aimed to: (1) investigate relationship between COVID-19 and women’s and children’s diets in India; (2) examine how this varies by socioeconomic status and mothers’ vegetarianism; and (3) assess whether mobility restrictions during India’s national lockdown influenced these dietary changes. The analysis drew on data from India’s National Family Health Survey 2015–16 and 2019–21, focusing on 11 states surveyed before and during COVID-19 (N = 567,727 women, 141,905 children). COVID-19 exposure was defined as interviews after 24 March 2020 (national lockdown). Outcomes included child feeding practices and women’s food consumption and dietary diversity. The impact of COVID-19 on diets was estimated using a difference-in-difference model; effect of mobility reduction on diets was examined using linear regression. All analyses were adjusted for confounders, interview month, state fixed effects, and sampling weights. Results showed that COVID-19 exposure was linked to significant declines in child feeding practices (−6.9 percentage points [pp] for minimum dietary diversity, −5.0 pp for minimum acceptable diet, and −6.1 pp for fruit consumption) and women’s diet (−5.7 pp for dietary diversity and green vegetable consumption). While magnitude of impact varied across socioeconomic sub-strata and mothers’ vegetarianism status, the differences were not statistically significant. The diets of women and children were greatly impacted by mobility reduction. COVID-19 has worsened the diets of women and children in India. More research is needed on the impact of relief measures to strengthen food safety nets nationwide.

The economic costs of bribes and road harassment by officials in ECOWAS

Repairing the mosaic: The political economy of landscape-level agroecological transitions in India

Information framing effects on diet choices among Chinese urban residents

Unhealthy diets have become a leading contributor to death and disability globally. The current Chinese diet falls short of a healthy diet, including too much meat, oil, salt, and sugar while having insufficient levels of whole grains, fruits, nuts, and milk. Transforming Chinese dietary patterns has become urgent. This paper compares the effectiveness of information framing effects on enhancing Chinese consumers’ healthy diet choices, varied by information content, source, and presentation. The survey is conducted across six Chinese cities, with a sample of 3150 urban consumers. Chinese consumers’ healthy diet choices are measured using an online discrete choice experiment. Four different diet patterns were used to label each of the product alternatives in the experiment, which varied in taste and cost. Results reveal that compared to positive information; negatively framed healthy information is more effective in increasing Chinese consumers’ valuations for healthy diets. Consumer valuation of a healthy whole diet is significantly enhanced when the information is from social celebrities, compared to information from a scientific source. Moreover, when health information is disclosed via social media, its effectiveness in promoting healthy diet choices is significantly reduced. Our findings have implications for designing and implementing nutrition policies and programs in China and other developing countries.

War and resilience: The multifaceted impacts of Sudan’s conflict and pathways to recovery

The synopsis is being made available in advance of an anticipated 2026 launch of the full book.

Youth in relation to agroecology: practices, promises, and perceptions in five countries

In the context of rising youth populations in many low- and middle-income countries, coupled with high youth unemployment and aging farmer populations, this paper asks in what ways agroecology, as a sustainable alternative to the conventional agricultural practices and paradigm, attracts youth to farming and rural-based livelihoods. We draw on empirical data from semi-structured interviews and photovoice conducted with young women and men in five countries: Kenya, India, Peru, Tunisia, and Zimbabwe. In our discussion, we highlight which dimensions and aspects of agroecology resonate with youth and why.

Imperfect competition and asymmetric welfare effects of global price and productivity shocks: a CGE model analysis for Senegal

This article investigates the asymmetric effects of global price and productivity shocks on welfare in the context of imperfect competition. The primary objective is to understand how market concentration affects the transmission of economic shocks and their impacts on various households. A CGE model, calibrated on a 2014 social accounting matrix for Senegal, is used. The model features a trading sector operating under a Cournot oligopoly with increasing returns to scale. Two scenarios are simulated: a 15% increase in global import prices and a 10% increase in agricultural productivity, each considering different levels of market concentration. The findings reveal that higher global import prices reduce household well-being, a situation exacerbated by low market competition. In contrast, agricultural productivity gains enhance well-being, with these benefits amplified by greater competition. However, the wealthiest households in Dakar benefit from low competition due to their positions in oligopolistic companies. To maximize household well-being, economic policies should focus on strengthening market competition, particularly in the trading sector. Actions such as reducing entry barriers for new businesses and regulating anti-competitive practices can help mitigate the adverse effects of global price increases and amplify the benefits of agricultural productivity gains.

Understanding spatial heterogeneity of hidden hunger in Senegal

Using household consumption data collected in 2017/18, this paper analyzes patterns of urban and rural food consumption in Senegal. We adopt two methodological approaches: an in-depth (spatial) profiling of current diets and corresponding nutrient intakes and an application of the Quadratic Almost Ideal Demand System (QUAIDS). Our findings indicate that Senegal is a typical case of micronutrient deficiency, especially regarding calcium, iron, and vitamin B12. Due to their higher income status and better food access, urban dwellers on average have a more diversified diet with higher nutrient intakes compared to their rural counterparts, especially regarding calcium, vitamin B12, and vitamin A. While the country’s food system in general is unable to assure a nutritious diet for all, the most remote rural departments in Senegal, such as Saraya and Podor, display the highest nutrient deficiencies and therefore should be targeted with priority. Apart from geographical targeting and given their higher responsiveness to price and income changes, policies based on food pricing and income transfers should be implemented to ensure a minimal nutrient intake among the most food-insecure households. These policies could be further complemented with behavioral change campaigns to promote an alternative set of nutrient-rich and cost-effective food items.

Step by step to higher yields? Adoption and impacts of a sequenced training approach for climate-smart coffee production in Uganda

Climate change further exacerbates sustainability challenges in coffee cultivation. Addressing these requires effective delivery mechanisms for sustainable farming practices, particularly in smallholder contexts. We assess a novel public-private extension approach in Uganda, called Stepwise, comprising a sequence of climate-smart and good agricultural practices in four incremental steps. Using a mixed-method approach, an index that captures adoption intensity rather than binary uptake, and survey data from 915 Robusta and Arabica coffee farmers, we find adoption levels around 46% and relatively uniform amongst treated, spillover and comparison farmers. Regional variations suggest differing benefits across coffee varieties. Qualitative findings identify barriers to adoption, including financial and labour constraints, suboptimal training delivery, and input and output market imperfections. Despite relatively low uptake, adoption of more than half of the Stepwise practices is associated with substantial gains: inverse probability weighted regression adjustment reveals a 23% increase in yield and a 32% increase in revenue. Our findings add to the adoption literature, which often highlights limited uptake, and have important policy implications. Strengthening producer organizations, delivering targeted training but also innovative solutions for access to inputs and fair pricing, hold considerable potential to increase the adoption of climate-smart practices, particularly among resource-constrained farmers.

Rural livelihoods under prolonged conflict: Evidence from a panel household survey in Sudan

This report presents evidence from the Sudan Rural Household Survey of 2023 and 2024, a two-wave panel survey that assesses how rural households are navigating prolonged conflict. By tracking the same households over time, the survey provides longitudinal insights into livelihoods, food security, access to markets and productive resources, and exposure to shocks across an insecure and rapidly evolving context. The findings from the survey data analysis point to an uneven pattern of economic adjustment by households rather than sustained recovery. Rural households are actively adapting through changes in livelihood strategies, income diversification, and increased participation of household members in income-generating activities. Compared to 2023, fewer households reported in 2024 having no employment. Engagement in salaried work and agriculture also rose. Despite these shifts, income losses remain widespread. Only a small share of households reported improved earnings in 2024, indicating that adaptation is largely driven by necessity rather than durable recovery. Food consumption outcomes improved markedly between survey waves, with substantial declines in the share of households in 2024 reporting poor or borderline diets. At the same time, experience-based measures show that food insecurity remains pervasive, with more than half of rural households facing moderate or severe food insecurity. There has been little change in the prevalence of severe food insecurity. The continuing food insecurity challenges underscore the fragility of recent gains and the continued vulnerability of many households.

Life after a cluster intervention: Insights from shrimp farming in Bangladesh

This project note summarizes insights from a three-year research project focused on an ambitious cluster intervention by the Department of Fisheries (DoF), Government of Bangladesh for shrimp farmers. In 2022, as part of a World Bank funded project, the Department of Fisheries organized smallholder shrimp farmers with contiguous ponds into clusters in Khulna, Satkhira and Bagerhat districts in southwest Bangladesh. Each cluster brought together 20-25 farmers, with pond sizes of at most 1.5 acres in size, to deliver training on best management practices, supply inputs, and encourage coordination. Group members were encouraged to follow a suite of management practices aimed at raising farm productivity, reducing the incidence of shrimp disease, and increasing the supply of raw material for processors. These measures included farming bagda shrimp (P. monodon)—Bangladesh’s main export species—in monoculture, raising shrimp stocking densities, stocking disease-free shrimp larvae (SPFPL), using factory-made feeds, deepening ponds, erecting biosecurity fencing, and coordinating stocking and harvesting activities with other group members. The costs of deepening ponds and adopting other improved management practices were borne by farmers themselves, but the clusters that made these investments received free SPF-PL and feed as incentives for doing so. The goal of this cluster intervention was to promote sufficient volumes of shrimp for processing plants for export, eventually paving the way for instituting traceability systems and group-based sustainability certification, increasingly a requirement in global retail markets. Even at the time of inception, the cluster program was intended as a time-bound two-year project that would end in 2025.

Climate-smart agriculture and development practices in Egypt: Report on a policy seminar event

This policy note summarizes presentations and discussion shared during the workshop held in Cairo on May 25th 2025, as part of the Bridging Evidence and Policy (BEP) seminar series, a collaborative initiative by the Egyptian Food Bank (EFB), the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), and the Sawiris Foundation for Social Development (SFSD) which brings together researchers, policymakers, and development practitioners.

Targeting of food aid programs: Evidence from Egypt

In-kind food aid programs remain prominent world-wide. Targeting in these programs is complex due to potential distortions in consumption. This paper advances the literature by moving beyond poverty-based targeting to address nutritional objectives. Using data from a randomized controlled trial (RCT), we apply machine learning (ML) techniques to analyze heterogeneity in impacts across nutritional outcomes, aiming to inform targeting based on observable characteristics. We find that such characteristics significantly predict heterogeneity in treatment effects, though relevant predictors differ by outcome and treatment type. Building on recent literature advocating for balancing of deprivation and expected impact, we show that, in our context, the trade-off between targeting the most impacted versus the most deprived households is limited. Instead, the main challenge is prioritizing among competing nutritional objectives. Our findings indicate that ML methods can inform outcome-specific targeting criteria, though these criteria vary across outcomes and are imperfectly correlated.

Evolution of consumption and livelihood impacts from cash and food transfer programs: Eight-year post-program experimental evidence from Bangladesh

Findings from this study will provide greater insight as to how and why transfer programs have mixed post-intervention effects across different contexts, and how gender and livelihood opportunities may influence these trajectories. These insights will help inform the future design of transfer programs that aim to support sustainable poverty reduction and gender-equitable livelihoods, including to guide modifications tailored to the local context.

Impact assessments of gender transformative interventions in Tanzania: Pre-analysis plan

Transforming gender norms improves women’s wellbeing and may help close the agricultural productivity gap, yet evidence on pairing them with agriculture interventions is limited. We will test an innovative approach to developing and delivering gender transformative interventions with cassava producers in Tanzania. Using a cluster-randomized controlled trial, we examine the impact of these gender transformative interventions paired with standard agricultural service, compared to agricultural services alone, on the primary (gender norms, decision making, and women’s leadership) and secondary (agricultural productivity, women’s savings, and women’s access to land) outcomes. Qualitative methods will examine changes in intra-couple dynamics (communication, decision making, and division of labor).

Solar powered drip irrigation: Lessons learned from an impact evaluation in Yemen

This policy note summarizes findings from a clustered randomized controlled trial (RCT) conducted in eastern Yemen to assess the impacts of subsidized solar powered drip irrigation systems on smallholder farmers’ production decisions and household food security. The study provides causal evidence on how subsidizing solar drip irrigation for smallholders affects crop choice, market engagement, and welfare outcomes in a fragile, water-scarce context. The intervention led to a significant shift in cropping patterns, with treated farmers becoming less likely to cultivate cereals and more likely to grow higher-value horticultural crops. Treated households also sold a greater share of their harvest in markets during the first season following installation, suggesting increased commercialization. However, the study did not detect significant short-term impacts on household food security, indicating that production changes did not immediately translate into improved consumption outcomes.

Alineando el financiamiento verde con la política agropecuaria: De los compromisos globales a las soluciones locales

El documento analiza cómo el financiamiento verde puede alinearse con la política agropecuaria para apoyar sistemas agroalimentarios sostenibles frente a presiones ambientales globales como la degradación del suelo, la pérdida de biodiversidad y la variabilidad climática; enfatiza el papel de marcos internacionales como el Acuerdo de París y la necesidad de aumentar el financiamiento climático que llega al sector agrícola; destaca los avances de América Latina y el Caribe en taxonomías verdes y programas como el ABC+ de Brasil, subraya la importancia de sistemas sólidos de monitoreo, reporte y verificación, y revisa la evidencia que muestra que el crédito agropecuario condicionado puede impulsar prácticas sostenibles cuando existen instituciones fuertes y bajos costos de transacción, aunque persisten barreras, especialmente para pequeños productores; para Colombia, identifica tensiones ambientales significativas, desafíos estructurales rurales y avances en políticas como crecimiento verde, agroecología y finanzas climáticas, concluyendo que una mayor coordinación intersectorial, mecanismos financieros adaptativos, enfoques territoriales y estrategias centradas en los productores son esenciales para facilitar una transición justa hacia una productividad agropecuaria sostenible. Este resumen ha sido proporcionado por inteligencia artificial generativa.

Essential commodities prices, availability, and market actors’ perceptions: November 2025

Sudan’s markets in November 2025 showed continued, albeit uneven, stabilization. Prices of most essential commodities remained broadly stable, supported by seasonal harvest effects and improved availability. Wheat prices increased modestly due to slightly lower availability, while sorghum prices remained low and stable. Prices of lentils and rice were largely unchanged, pigeon pea prices declined, and vegetable prices showed mixed trends with improvements in onion availability and quality. Oilseeds, sugar, cooking oil, and fava bean prices were generally stable or declining, despite persistent inter-state disparities. Meat prices continued to rise for lamb and beef, while chicken prices stabilized and milk prices declined. Fuel prices stabilized following earlier volatility, with improved availability in regular markets, though parallel market prices remained high. Fertilizer prices were stable, but perceived availability declined. Exchange rate pressures persisted, marked by a widening gap between official and parallel rates. Market functioning improved, with fewer merchants reporting supply chain, financial, and liquidity constraints, and minimal challenges related to storage, power, labor, and market safety. Profitability stabilized, tax and fee payments increased further, and most merchants expect to maintain current trading levels, signaling cautious but stable market outlooks.

Pakistan agri-food system: Assessment report

Despite agriculture’s central role in Pakistan’s economic growth, the sector continues to struggle with decades old structural issues and its performance is weak. Spending on subsidies for water, fertilizer, electricity, and wheat procurement reached US$1.25 billion in Punjab alone, far more than the funding provided for research and development. Inefficient and fragmented value chains, high post-harvest losses and transport costs, limited access to formal markets, dependence on subsidies, and underdeveloped storage and processing infrastructure are among the significant problems affecting agriculture. The deep-rooted traditional system, characterized by reliance on commission agents and the weak implementation of market reforms both restrict farmers’ bargaining power, especially for smallholder farmers. Moreover, although on average the country’s population is food secure in terms of caloric sufficiency, limited dietary diversity and inadequate access to nutritious foods cause widespread malnutrition. Regardless of these issues, some positive changes have been introduced. The recent rollback of wheat procurement and the minimum support price policy presents both challenges and opportunities as long-sought reconsideration of crop choices and promotion of higher value or climate-resilient alternative crops now seems possible. Market reform under the Punjab Agriculture Marketing Regulatory Authority (PAMRA), created as an initiative of the World Bank’s SMART program, presents another opportunity, particularly as the notified areas for central markets have been dropped, creating an opening for more competition. Although implementation remains slow, the Authority has begun paving the way for market modernization. However, this transition must be supported by improvements in market access, development of an improved and well-managed storage network, and well-functioning price mechanisms to protect food security and farmer incomes. In addition to the marketing, value addition, and productivity challenges identified above, climate change will also create constraints and challenges for agri-food development and transformation in Pakistan. The sector faces likely increases in extreme events, particularly flooding, as well as longer-run chronic effects of heat on yields and labor productivity in agriculture, rising salinity and land drying, and increasing crop water requirements even as other demands for water increase.

Module for measuring gender norms in agrifood systems: Adapted for focusing on youth and mechanization in Bangladesh

This module is designed for use in agricultural communities in Bangladesh. Specifically, we expect that it will be well suited for evaluating changes in gender norms for gender transformative approaches paired with technical interventions with an agricultural mechanization component. This module is also designed to focus on differences in norms for young women (~ age 1534) and more mature women (~age 35-64) working in agriculture. First, we suggest identifying and using culturally appropriate terminology to refer to women in these two age groups. Additionally, we suggest piloting this survey in a sample with adequate numbers of younger and older women and men. For example, >300 respondents in each of the following categories: women 15-34, men 15-34, women 35-64, and men 35-64. These sample sizes will make it possible to compare perceptions of gender norms regarding younger and older women and consider gender by youth intersectionality. In the modules that follow, the same questions are asked regarding young women and older/mature women. One option to consider that can help avoid respondent fatigue from repeating similar questions would be to randomly assign half of the sample questions about young women and the other half of the sample questions about older/mature women.

Impact evaluation of a solar powered drip irrigation intervention in eastern Yemen

Groundwater irrigation supports agricultural production and local food security in arid regions, however costs and accessibility of fuel for pumping are a challenge in conflict-affected contexts. Solar-powered drip irrigation technology can support smallholder farmers in such settings. In this study we estimated the impacts of subsidized solar-powered drip irrigation systems on smallholder farmers’ production decisions and household food security via a clustered randomized control trial in eastern Yemen. We found that farmers in the treatment group were significantly less likely to cultivate cereals, more likely to cultivate horticultural crops, and more likely to sell a higher share of their harvests at market during the first season post‑intervention. These results provide causal evidence on the impact of solar drip irrigation systems on shifting smallholder farmers’ crop production toward higher-value crops. We did not find significant impacts on household food security within the short-term post-intervention period that the analysis covered. These findings also provide preliminary support for investments in solar and drip irrigation technology in Yemen, while acknowledging that more research is needed to address potential negative externalities.

Measuring norms and beliefs about gender-based violence among adolescent girls and young women in rural Senegal: Psychometric validation in a novel population and setting

Intimate partner violence (IPV) and non-partner sexual violence (NPSV) are forms of gender-based violence (GBV) and contribute to a range of poor mental and physical health outcomes (Beydoun et al., 2012; Dillon et al., 2013; Flor et al., 2025). Among ever-partnered women aged 15 and older in the Africa region, 33% report physical and/or sexual IPV in their lifetime and 19% in the past year (Sardinha et al., 2022). In addition, the lifetime prevalence of NPSV among woman aged 15 to 49 years is 6% in sub-Saharan Africa (Sardinha et al., 2024). Norms (i.e., the societal expectations and rules that dictate acceptable behavior in a given context) that consider GBV acceptable in its various forms perpetuate GBV by reinforcing its acceptability. Among interventions that aim to reduce the prevalence of GBV, many aim to do so, at least in part, by changing both norms and beliefs about GBV (Leight et al., 2023; Ullman et al., 2025). Validated scales for measuring these outcomes are limited, but important for understanding factors that contribute to changes in norms and beliefs.