IFPRI Publications: Briefs

Synopsis: The changing demographics in Nigeria’s food systems and implications for future youth engagement

Food systems (FS) are critically important in sub-Sahara Africa (SSA), where they account for a significant share of the GDP and employment. FS transformation is both strongly influenced by and strongly influences employment and job creation. This study documents FS employment in the past two decades observed in Nigeria, focusing on changes in demographic structure and inclusiveness. Key findings of the study are: FS in Nigeria are poised for significant transformation driven by demographic shifts, urbanization, income growth, and a favorable policy environment, while the conflict adversely affects this transformation. Agricultural employment declined significantly during the period, while the share of nonfarm agrifood sectors in total employment almost tripled, signaling major structural transformation. Employment in food manufacturing expanded rapidly, albeit from a lower base, with women’s share among the fastest growing. Women’s share in nonfarm agrifood system (AFS) employment tripled over the period, while youth participation quadrupled. However, Nigeria’s youth face persistent barriers. Youth unemployment is double the national rate and their labor force participation is considerably below the average rate. The nonfarm AFS employment share in Nigeria far exceeds the continental average, positioning Nigeria ahead in AFS transformation. Policy recommendations from the study include providing targeted youth training and financing for nonfarm AFS roles; closing gender gaps through resource access and supportive regulations; investing in marketing infrastructure; prioritizing recovery and job programs in conflict zones; and adopting a holistic FS approach that also engenders the active involvement of women and youth.

Climate–agriculture–gender inequality hotspots: Insights for Nigeria

Climate change intensifies risks in Nigeria’s agri-food systems, disproportionately affecting women due to social inequalities that increase their vulnerability and limit their adaptive capacity. Hotspot areas are concentrated in northern and north-central Nigeria, notably Bauchi, Benue, Kano, Jigawa, Kebby, Nasarawa, Niger, Sokoto, and Zamfara. Policy actions should prioritize climate-smart agriculture, gender-sensitive climate services, and social protection to improve resilience and equity.

Labor market and gender impacts of agricultural mechanization: Evidence from Bangladesh’s combine harvester subsidy program

Bangladesh’s Phase III agricultural mechanization subsidy program (2020–2024) distributed over 35,000 machines worth BDT 1,595 crore (USD 163 million), including nearly 9,000 combine harvesters (CHs) that accounted for 84% of machinery expenditure. Earlier causal econometric analysis suggests that high-allocation CH areas saw 6-13% yield gains, 38-70% lower labor costs, and 12-26% lower production costs. In this note, we explore the distributional consequences of subsidized combine harvesters, particularly along gender lines. As a result of the program, self-employment in agriculture increases by 5.3 percentage points; men shift from wage labor to own-account farm work linked to mechanized operations. Female self-employment in agriculture declines by 2.6 percentage points; overall female employment probability falls by 1.8 percentage points. Unlike men, women do not transition into non-agricultural employment, indicating limited capacity to absorb displaced female workers. Among those who remain self-employed, women increase their time allocation substantially—suggesting that while fewer women participate, those who do work more hours, likely in livestock and fisheries. Foreign migration increases by 6.1 percentage points in high-mechanization areas, suggesting households use freed labor for overseas opportunities.

Community health worker caseloads, home visits, and child survival: Experimental evidence of heterogenous effects from Mali

I examine whether the effectiveness of community health worker (CHW) home visits in reducing under-five mortality varies with the population-to-CHW ratio in rural, fragile, and conflict-affected Mali. Muso, a global health NGO focused on reducing child and maternal mortality, recently signed a data use agreement with IFPRI to enable study of new research questions using data from its recent randomized controlled trial (RCT) of proactive home visits in Mali’s Bankass region. The original trial found that proactive home visits by professional CHWs did not lead to detectable reductions in child mortality relative to fixed-site care, although health infrastructure improvements in both treatment arms likely led to experienced large declines in under-five mortality across all study communities amid ongoing conflict. In this project note, I study heterogeneous effects of the proactive home visit model by population-to-CHW ratios using nearly census level baseline population data and administrative records on CHW assignment. I test the hypothesis that home visits may operate differently when CHWs face particularly high or low caseloads. In theory, CHWs serving small populations may not be necessary for improving access because travel distances to fixed sites are already short, whereas CHWs serving very large populations may be unable to conduct sufficiently frequent and high-quality home visits. If both mechanisms operate, an optimal population-to-CHW ratio may exist. Instead, I find evidence that CHW home visits are more effective when the population-to-CHW ratio is high. At 900 people per CHW (about the 90th percentile in the trial data), children in control clusters experience significantly higher mortality risk. This elevated risk, however, is offset in clusters assigned to proactive home visits. Additional checks indicate that this is driven by CHW coverage rather than underlying population size. These findings suggest that proactive home visits may be most beneficial in areas where fixed-site CHWs otherwise face heavy caseloads.

Cold storage networks powered with renewable energy

Cold-storage networks are a key technology that can address the nutritional and environmental costs of food loss and waste within many low- and middle-income countries. In addition to coordination challenges and network externalities that complicate efforts to scale these networks, they require large amounts of energy, carrying the potential of environmental damage via carbon emissions. Thus, using renewable energy sources to power cold-storage networks holds the potential to reduce the environmental damage associated with food loss and meet the increased demand for energy.

Impact of NGOs on women’s empowerment and voice in Bangladesh

Bangladesh continues to experience persistent gender inequalities shaped by cultural, religious, and social norms. Within its patriarchal social structure, women’s roles are commonly limited to reproductive work or household-based productive activities. These tasks are essential to family well-being but unpaid, undervalued, and routinely overlooked compared to men’s work (Efroymson et al., 2007). These norms have historically constrained women’s visibility, mobility, and participation in the public sphere. The expansion of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) marked an important shift in this landscape. Bangladesh’s NGO sector is heterogeneous, with diverse organizational structures, management styles, and ideological orientations that span both service-delivery and movement-based models (Kabeer, 2002). The rapid growth of NGOs starting in the 1980s is driven largely by increases in donor funding, which signaled a move away from earlier approaches focused on promoting political mobilization and accountability of government toward more service-oriented delivery systems (Rahman, 2006). Over the last decades, many of these service-delivery organizations have incorporated advocacy and rights-based strategies into their work (Nazneen, 2008). Through these evolving programmes, NGOs highlighted and strengthened the contributions of underprivileged women as economic actors and active participants in development and political process. However, despite this progress, there is still no clear empirical evidence from Bangladesh that directly links the presence of NGOs to improvements in women’s agency, voice, and empowerment.

Economic aspects of wildlife farming: Analysis of household surveys from two Vietnamese provinces

Vietnam is a global hotspot for wildlife trade and farming, with thousands of licensed operations raising species such as civets, porcupines, bamboo rats, snakes, and wild boar for meat, traditional medicine, and the exotic pet trade (Van Thu et al., 2023). The sector poses significant public health risks due to the potential for transmission of novel zoonotic diseases (Latinne & Padungtod, 2025). Understanding the economics of this sector is critical to developing effective policy for managing and de-risking wildlife sup-ply chains but data is scarce, typically based on small sample sizes and limited study sites (Thuy et al., 2021). This note provides descriptive statistics regarding the economics of wildlife farming in two provinces of Vietnam, based on a survey of wildlife farming households.

Odisha’s agricultural export footprint

Odisha’s agricultural exports are rising steadily, yet they remain highly concentrated in a few products and districts. Shrimp continues to dominate, while cotton and rice are gradually emerging as important contributors. Notably, the share of agriculture in Odisha’s total merchandise exports has nearly doubled from 4% in 2021–22 to 7% in 2024–25,.

Urea super granules with deep placement

Urea deep placement, an alternative to traditional broadcast methods, consists of applying urea super granules (USG) directly into the soil next to the root of the plant and beyond the roots of weeds. Traditionally, farmers broadcast prilled urea fertilizer on top of their plots, which is associated with high rates of nitrogen loss, leading to reduced crop yields and environmental damage, especially among rice farmers. In contrast, the use of USG deep placement better contains nitrogen in the soil, facilitating its absorption into crops and improving nitrogen use efficiency. In this way, USG can reduce nitrogen losses along with the associated economic and environmental consequences.

Livelihoods and recovery after Cyclone Idai: Short- and long-run household evidence from Mozambique

Sub-Saharan Africa bears a disproportionate share of global poverty and is also among the regions most vulnerable to natural disasters that pose persistent threats to livelihoods, food security, and long-run development. This study examines how exposure to a major natural disaster—Cyclone Idai, one of the deadliest and costliest disasters in Mozambique’s history—affected household well-being and economic behavior in central Mozambique following its landfall in March 2019. We combine satellite-based best-track data on Cyclone Idai’s trajectory with longitudinal household survey data collected both shortly after the disaster and five to six years later. Specifically, we link predicted maximum wind speed at the community level to a pre-defined sample of households surveyed before the cyclone, allowing us to estimate impacts in the short run (within the same year) and the longer run. This design leverages rich pre-baseline data and province fixed effects to mitigate concerns about selection bias, displacement, and omitted variables that commonly complicate causal inference in disaster impact studies. We find that greater cyclone exposure is strongly associated with short-run reports of shock experience and asset loss, validating predicted wind speed as a measure of disaster intensity. In the long run, however, households appear to recover from the immediate shock. Cyclone exposure is associated with persistent declines in reliance on agriculture as a primary livelihood and increases in small business activity and formal wage employment. At the same time, we observe mixed effects on asset ownership, with sustained declines in housing ownership alongside increases in durable asset holdings. Future work will continue to highlight how complex and heterogeneous pathways through which large-scale disasters reshape household livelihoods and economic behavior over time.

Soil testing

Soil tests provide farmers with information about the nutrient needs of the soil on their agricultural plots and can help farmers apply the optimal amount and type of fertilizer. Too little fertilizer can stunt plant growth and degrade the quality of soil. Conversely, too much fertilizer can become toxic to plants and generate environmental damage via chemicals leaching into nearby water sources or dissipating into the atmosphere. Applying the wrong type of fertilizer will fail to meet the nutrient needs of crops. Plot-specific soil tests are needed because soil characteristics vary, even within local geographies. For this reason, several studies find that blanket recommendations and untargeted fertilizer subsidies are largely ineffective at meeting soil nutrient needs and improving yields.

Mastitis treatment in Karnataka: Results from a qualitative scoping survey

Bovine mastitis, inflammation of a cow’s mammary gland, is estimated to cost Indian dairy farmers approximately 1.5 billion US dollars each year through the reduction of milk production and quality (Banal and Gupta, 2009). Milk production may decrease by as much as 17.5% before any noticeable signs of infection are present (Krishnamoorthy et al., 2021), with even larger losses in the case of clinically observable mastitis (Singh and Singh, 1994). Prevalence of sub-clinical mastitis in India has been estimated at 42% and is increasing with warming global temperatures (Krishnamoorthy et al., 2021; Jingar, Mehla, and Singh, 2014). Farmers in India typically treat animals for mastitis only once clinical signs appear, using broad-spectrum antibiotics that may accelerate development of resistant pathogens (Chauhan et al. 2018; Mutua et al., 2020). Diagnostic methods for mastitis are often expensive, time-consuming, and generally used for retrospective herd-level testing, limiting their effectiveness for preventing economic losses.

Lessons from the Digital Agricultural Advisory Services (DAAS) project in Ethiopia: Wheat use case

Agricultural extension services are a cornerstone of rural development and a vital instrument for policymakers to directly shape economic, social, and environmental outcomes in rural areas. These services aim to enhance farm productivity by promoting the adoption of agricultural technologies, inputs, and management practices. Through outreach, training, knowledge sharing, and learning, extension activities help bridge the gap between research and practice, potentially supporting more resilient and productive farming systems (Davis 2008; Jack 2013).

MSMEs and their role in encouraging sustainable healthy diets in Viet Nam

In this brief, we explore diet quality gaps in survey data collected in a transect of locations in Vietnam, including an urban district, a peri-urban district, and a rural district. We find that healthy foods are relatively underconsumed, at least among adolescents. We find that when households report purchasing most types of healthy foods, they buy them from MSMEs. Among types of healthy foods that are underconsumed, we find they are most commonly available at small groceries. Therefore, as Vietnam begins to implement policies to guide food systems transformation at the subnational level, it would seem worthwhile to target small groceries as a conduit for selling more components of healthy diets. De Brauw, Anh and Pham (2024) find that some business skills are particularly lacking among small groceries; for example, they find that very few small groceries have financial records, record sales, or have a written budget. Small groceries also lack access to finance. However, many of them also sell less healthy foods, such as refined grains (such as white rice), sweets, and sugar sweetened beverages. Therefore it is important to combine any business skills with nutrition education, to try to ensure that business owners do not use newfound skills to promote the sale of additional unhealthy products. There are several policy levers, existing at both the national and provincial levels, that could be used to help MSMEs sell more healthy products. However, it is important to monitor these policies to ensure that they are catalyzing food systems transformation towards healthy diets. With appropriate training and potentially additional finance, MSMEs selling healthier foods can be encouraged to grow and improve the accessibility of healthy foods.

Lessons from the Digital Agricultural Advisory Services (DAAS) project in Ethiopia: Dairy use case

Agricultural extension services are a cornerstone of rural development and a vital instrument for policymakers to directly shape economic, social, and environmental outcomes in rural areas. These services aim to enhance farm productivity by promoting the adoption of agricultural technologies, inputs, and management practices. Through outreach, training, knowledge sharing, and learning, extension activities help bridge the gap between research and practice, potentially supporting more resilient and productive farming systems (Davis 2008; Jack 2013).

Combine harvester subsidies and agricultural mechanization in Bangladesh: Recommendations for reform

This brief summarizes findings from a recent report1 on Bangladesh’s Phase III agricultural mechanization support program (2020–2024). The program distributed over 35,000 subsidized machines worth BDT 1,595 crore (USD 163 million). Combine harvesters (CHs) accounted for 84% of program value, making them the focus of this analysis. Drawing on administrative data, a survey of 979 Machinery Service Providers (including 400 CH MSPs), panel data from over 2,000 Boro rice-producing households, and 128 qualitative interviews, the report examines program impacts and identifies critical implementation gaps.

How can community grants promote gender-inclusive development in fragile settings? Insights from rural Nigeria

Community-driven development (CDD) programs aim to shift decision-making to the local level by empowering communities to prioritize, design, and implement projects that address their most pressing needs. These programs have gained global traction as vehicles for service delivery and empowerment, especially in fragile contexts with weak state capacity. These programs leverage communities’ understanding of local needs and their unique ability to deploy resources in conflict-affected, unstable, or highly remote areas that are operationally hard to reach for traditional development programs. However, evidence remains limited on how to structure CDD programs to ensure inclusive participation from a wide range of community members, particularly women, who tend to participate in community and public affairs at lower levels than men in these settings (Takeshima et al., 2024).

Bridging the information gap: How Munda Makeover is transforming agricultural learning in Zambia

This project note presents midline findings regarding the effects of Munda Makeover (MMO), a farm makeover TV show designed to disseminate agricultural knowledge to Zambian farmers in an entertaining way. IFPRI and partners designed and implemented a cluster randomized trial across 160 villages involving two main interventions: village screenings of MMO episodes, combined with weekly SMS reminders to watch the show; and agricultural roadshows or input fairs. Results from a phone survey with 976 farmers show that community screenings and SMS reminders significantly increased viewership and knowledge around innovations promoted in the TV show. However, the uptake of agricultural inputs sold during the roadshows remains limited, largely due to liquidity constraints. These findings offer critical insights for optimizing the delivery of agricultural extension content through mass media and improving farmers’ access to agricultural inputs.

Digital tool integration, biodiversity, and the potato value chain in Kenya: Results from a baseline survey

Potato farmers in Kenya grapple with various challenges along the value chain, including limited access to quality planting materials such as seeds and fertilizers, insufficient storage and postharvest handling facilities, fluctuating market prices, and unreliable market information systems. For women and youth, these challenges are further exacerbated by persistent social gaps in the agriculture sector. Digital tools can play a vital role in addressing these challenges by providing access to valuable agricultural information, weather forecasts, and best practices that help farmers make informed decisions and improve crop management. However, challenges persist in digital tool adoption within agricultural value chains in sub-Saharan Africa. This study assesses the impact of digital tool adoption and support on socioeconomic and agriculture-related outcomes in Kenya’s potato value chain. It piggybacks on an ongoing digital tool integration program, Business Development and Coaching (BDEC), conducted by the Farm to Market Alliance (FtMA), which targets agripreneurs in Farmer Service Centers (FSCs). By comparing a treatment group that receives this training with a control group continuing business as usual, the study evaluates the effects of agripreneurs’ adoption and expanded use of digital tools on farmers’ agriculture based livelihoods, income generation, and job creation metrics, with a focus on youth employment and gender disparities.

Realistic options for repurposing fertilizer subsidy spending

Worldwide, government spending on subsidies in agriculture, fishing, and fossil fuels amounts to a staggering $1.25 trillion annually. Subsidies play a significant role in every country’s fiscal policies, regardless of income level or spending patterns. Spending on energy and agricultural subsidies consistently accounts for 2%-3% of GDP on average across income levels and make the production and transportation of food cheaper. Spending on these subsidies is coming under increasing scrutiny as governments struggle to mobilize additional revenue to meet important development targets amid rising debt distress, dwindling aid resources, and citizen protests against unpopular tax increases. One solution proposed by a growing consensus of voices is to repurpose expensive subsidies towards expenditures that generate higher development benefits. While these subsidies aim to address low agricultural productivity, high food prices, and other critical challenges, their continuing predominance in food system investments raises important questions: Is this an effective way to spend public funds on such a large scale? If not, can some of the money currently going to subsidies be used to finance other needed investments (that may in turn make subsidies themselves more effective) and if yes, what type of investments can they fund? This note explores these questions, focusing specifically on fertilizer subsidies, a major source of government support for farmers, especially in low-income countries, where they comprise a quarter of all subsidy spending (as well as one-tenth of such spending on in high income countries).

Synopsis: Quantifying food losses in the beans value chain in Rwanda – Results from a baseline survey

Reducing food loss has become important, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, due to its direct impact on food security. Food loss also reduces producer incomes, increases food prices, and wastes natural resources, resulting in unnecessary greenhouse gas emissions. Most estimates of food loss have been heavily criticized for lacking sound methodological basis. This study uses a novel methodology to measure food loss and identify where it occurs along the beans value chain in Rwanda.

Biofuels in India: Trading off climate mitigation with water security goals

Biofuels are recognized as a renewable alternative to fossil sources of energy like petroleum or gas. Liquid biofuels, such as bioethanol and biodiesel are blended with petrol or diesel and used for road, aviation and marine transport; they are expected to account for 6% of total renewable transportation fuel use by 2030. Biofuels can not only support a country’s mitigation goals; but also reduce the need for foreign exchange and support agricultural growth. In India, 22% of total energy supply is provided by renewables, most of it from biomass for heating; while biofuels account for less than 1% of transportation energy. Over 90% of bioethanol and biodiesel are produced from food crops such as maize, sugarcane, soybeans, and vegetable oils, with sugarcane serving as the primary feedstock. As a signatory to the Paris Agreement on Climate Change and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), India submitted its Long-Term Low Emission Development Strategy (LT-LEDS) to the UNFCCC in 2022, emphasizing the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the transport sector. Achieving this goal is supported, among others, by India’s biofuel policy of 2018 (modified from the original policy of 2009), which aims to achieve blending targets of 20% for ethanol and 5% for biodiesel by 2025.

Kenya: Cost effective options for inclusive and sustainable development

In this policy brief, we present findings of a systematic evaluation and ranking of investment options for Kenya’s agrifood system based on their cost-effectiveness in achieving multiple development outcomes, including agrifood gross domestic product (GDP) growth, agrifood job creation, poverty reduction, declining undernourishment, and lowering diet deprivation. Additionally, the study assesses their environmental footprint, focusing on water consumption, land use, and emissions. Investments in small and medium enterprise (SME) processors, irrigation, and seed subsidy are shown to be the most cost-effective at driving improvements in social outcomes, like poverty and undernourishment. They are also highly ranked in terms of expanding agrifood GDP and employment. Expansion in extension and advisory services for seeds and agronomy as well as improvements in seed systems also rank high. However, many cost-effective investments have relatively high environmental footprints, which highlights potential tradeoffs. The study further reveals shifts in the cost-effectiveness ranking of investment options overtime and when extreme production shocks occur.

From commitment to delivery: Implementation as the frontier for CAADP 3.0

Africa enters the third phase of CAADP under the Kampala Declaration—CAADP 3.0—at a moment of profound possibility and significant stress. A young population, urban growth, technological adoption, and vibrant entrepreneurial systems are powerful drivers of agrifood innovation and transformation. Simultaneously, the continent’s agrifood systems are being shaped by intensifying climate shocks, constrained fiscal positions, fragile macroeconomic conditions, political volatility, and persistent conflict and displacement. These pressures are deepening hunger and undermining livelihoods across large regions. Importantly, Africa has accumulated considerable institutional knowledge and practical experience in policy formulation, planning, and cross-sector coordination. Governments, farmer organizations, regional bodies, and development partners understand the challenges facing the agrifood sector with far greater precision than in earlier CAADP cycles. The Kampala Declaration reflects this maturity. It is not simply another policy statement; it is a political signal that Africa intends to convert aspirations into meaningful, sustained action. The challenge is no longer conceptual clarity. The challenge is implementation. For CAADP 3.0 to fulfill its promise, countries must strengthen their ability to deliver consistently, at scale, and under difficult and rapidly changing conditions. This brief outlines the nature of that challenge and proposes a structured way to approach it, drawing from the November 2025 IFPRI webinar on strategic priorities for CAADP implementation.

Papua New Guinea food price bulletin: October 2025

This report provides analysis of food price trends for the third quarter (Q3) of 2025, from July to September. The Fresh Produce Development Agency (FPDA) continues to collect prices from major markets despite recurrent logistical challenges to maintain consistent data for capturing, analyzing and informing relevant stakeholders. Due to insufficient data being collected from April to June (collected only for May across all markets and for April in Banz and Kokopo), no second quarter bulletin was published. This report compares prices in Q3 2025 with Q1, Q2 (with the available limited data) of 2025, and Q3 2024 to identify quarterly and year-on-year trends of prices. Prices are reported in PGK per kilogram and represent real prices adjusted for inflation using FAO Consumer Food Price Index (PCI) and price gaps (April to September 2025) filled using a growth rate calculated from the PNG National Statistical Office (NSO) – June quarterly PCI data. This bulletin focuses on selected important staples (sweet potato, taro, cassava, cooking banana and rice), vegetables (aibika, English cabbage, capsicum, carrot, and choko-tips) and fruits (lemon, orange, pawpaw and pineapple). For longer time series data and interactive tools, visit the IFPRI website and download food price data here.

Energy and macronutrient intake among women of reproductive age: Baseline findings from the FRESH End-to-End Evaluation

In Tanzania, unhealthy diets are a major contributor to non-communicable diseases such as obesity, hypertension, and diabetes. Tanzanian diets are generally cereal-based and low in fruit and vegetables (F&V) and animal sourced foods. With rising incomes, consumption of energy-dense processed and ultra-processed foods has increased, reaching 694 kg/year per adult in 2019. Among women of reproductive age (WRA), daily energy intake is also increasing. Although nationally representative data are lacking, individual studies indicate an increase over time from 1,347 kcal/day in 2014 to 1,631 kcal/day in 2015/16 and 2,174 kcal/day in 2022. The CGIAR Research Initiative on Fruit and Vegetables for Sustainable Healthy Diets (FRESH), now under the CGIAR Science Program on Better Diets and Nutrition (BDN), uses an end-to-end approach, described in more detail in Research Brief 1, that combines demand, food environment, and supply interventions to increase desirability, affordability, accessibility, and availability of F&V. In Tanzania, an ongoing impact evaluation is testing the effectiveness of this end-to-end approach in improving F&V intake and vegetable production across 33 villages in the Arusha and Kilimanjaro regions. In this research brief, we describe baseline findings on the energy and macronutrient intake among WRA in the study area.

Bridging Nigeria’s fertilizer supply-demand gap for agricultural transformation

Nigeria’s fertilizer sector exhibits a persistent disconnect between national supply and farm-level use. Despite rapid growth in domestic production and increased private-sector participation, fertilizer adoption among smallholder farmers remains among the lowest in sub-Saharan Africa. This paper examines the key drivers of Nigeria’s fertilizer supply–demand imbalance and its implications for agricultural transformation. Using national statistics, market data, and policy reviews, it identifies persistent barriers – including high distribution costs, inconsistent government policies, weak extension systems, limited credit access, and poor product quality – that constrain effective fertilizer use. It also assesses how export-oriented incentives and underdeveloped domestic markets influence local availability and pricing. The findings show that expanding production alone is insufficient to achieve meaningful agricultural change. Coordinated market reforms, stronger regulatory enforcement, improved delivery mechanisms, and targeted support to smallholder farmers are needed to improve affordability, access, and agronomic efficiency. The paper concludes with policy recommendations aimed at better aligning the fertilizer sector with Nigeria’s long-term goals for productivity growth and food system resilience.

Digital agricultural technology in Egypt: Insights from app developers

Digital technologies have rapidly reshaped agricultural systems worldwide, and Egypt is no exception. Over the past decade, the proliferation of smartphones, mobile internet, and low-cost digital tools has opened new channels through which farmers, traders, processors, and aggregators access information and services. Smartphone applications, websites, call centers, and SMS-based platforms now offer advice on crop management, weather and climate alerts, input and output price information, traceability tools, and digital marketplaces. For smallholder farmers—who make up the backbone of Egypt`s agricultural sector—these tools have the potential to reduce information frictions, improve decision-making, and increase productivity and profitability. For larger firms engaged in aggregation, processing, or export, digital platforms can streamline supply chains, enhance coordination, and improve quality assurance.

Gendered work norms in Egypt: Evidence on preferences and social perceptions

We examine the nature and scope of gendered work norms in Egypt using new experimental evidence from a household survey. Societal norms around work, care responsibilities and the types of jobs women and men can hold can have a profound effect on gender differences in employment, earnings and life satisfaction. Indeed, while lack of childcare and secure transportation remain widely cited constraints to women’s employment in low-income settings, descriptive and experimental evidence also suggest that deeply rooted social norms about gender roles play a prominent role in driving the persistence of such barriers and in how households evaluate women’s work. Norms emphasizing men as primary breadwinners and women as primary caregivers shape both economic decisions and perceptions of behavior in ways that may limit women’s labor force participation even when opportunities exist. We implement three survey-based experiments among economically disadvantaged households to elucidate these norms and measure their salience. A wage‐comparison choice experiment shows that households strongly prefer that men—not women—take on additional paid work, even when this preference entails substantial forgone income for the household. When offered identical wages for equal hours of work, only 12.4 percent of respondents select the wife to take it as a first part-time job versus the husband taking it as a second part-time job. Even when her wage is double that of her husband, a clear majority still prefer that the husband works instead. These results indicate a large implicit cost that households place on women working outside the household. Two randomized vignette experiments further demonstrate that identical actions are interpreted differently depending on whether they are performed by men or women. Men who take on a second job to support their financially struggling household are widely viewed as more competent and more moral, whereas perceptions of women making the same choice are far more divided. Perceptions of workplace effort are broadly similar across genders, with small differences appearing only in perceptions of morality. Together, these findings emphasize the strength of gendered work norms in Egypt and reveal nuance in how they shape behavior. The findings also underscore the relevance of gender norms for designing programs affecting household work decisions and testing new approaches to promote women’s economic inclusion.

Micro-, small- and medium-sized enterprises and their role in sustainable healthy diets in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is working to transform its food system through a set of game changers that strive to change Ethiopia’s agricultural production patterns and to help improve consumption of under-consumed foods. The goal is to improve diet quality for Ethiopian consumers and households, which can only take place if consumers are more aware of what types of food to eat and if production of certain types of food can expand. In collaboration with national partners, CGIAR collected and analyzed data collected in Ethiopia on consumers and businesses selling food to consumers within the same food environments. The goal of this exercise was to learn about what dietary gaps exist, the type of businesses selling those foods, and factors constraining MSMEs from selling more healthy foods. There were three aspects to the data collection that are pertinent to this note, all collected in Kolfe Keranyo and Butajira: a consumer survey, which included information about households, adolescents, and their caregivers (typically mothers); a food environment survey, which collected some basic information about all businesses that sold food, including the foods they sold; and a survey covering micro-, small- and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) that work in the food environment. The latter survey included detailed information about MSMEs to understand their role in providing food to consumers. In this brief, we describe highlights from that analysis, with an eye towards ways the analysis can inform actions taken to implement specific game changers that catalyze food systems transformation from a consumer perspective.

Mozambique: Cost effective options for inclusive and sustainable development

In this policy brief, we present findings of a systematic evaluation and ranking of investment options for Mozambique’s agrifood system based on their cost-effectiveness in achieving multiple development outcomes, including agrifood gross domestic product (GDP) growth, agrifood job creation, poverty reduction, declining undernourishment, and lowering diet deprivation. Additionally, the study assesses their environmental footprint, focusing on water consumption, land use, and emissions. In Mozambique, investments in small and medium enterprise (SME) processors and traders are identified as the most cost-effective means of enhancing social outcomes, such as poverty reduction and addressing undernourishment. They are also highly ranked in accelerating agrifood GDP and employment. Moreover, extension services for livestock and agronomy, rural road infrastructure, and post-harvest losses reduction are also highly ranked. However, many of these cost-effective investments come with relatively high environmental footprints, which highlight potential tradeoffs. The study further reveals shifts in the cost-effectiveness ranking of investment options over time and marginally so in the presence of extreme production shocks.

The development potential of anchor enterprise models in Malawi

Smallholder-centered agricultural development strategies have had limited success in Malawi over the past several decades. Policy makers are now increasingly looking for alternative ways to accelerate agricultural and rural development. One emerging approach involves larger farms or agri-business firms partnering with smallholder farming households, in what we will refer to as an anchor enterprise model. Support for such partnerships is growing, but there is still little clarity on what they involve, what they aim to achieve and the conditions they need for success. Summarizing findings from a detailed report (Benson, Cockx, and De Weerdt, forthcoming). This policy note seeks to address these questions and provide guidance for future action. We structure our discussion around five questions: what the model is, when it can make sense, for whom it can work, how it can be implemented, and whether it can contribute to inclusive rural development.

Internal displacement and the measurement of women’s empowerment: Evidence from a test-retest survey experiment

Women’s empowerment includes the ability to participate in existing market activities, access and control the use of productive resources, obtain opportunities for decent work, control the use of time, and voice and participate in decision making within households and communities (United Nations 2018). Increasing women’s economic empowerment is relevant to several sustainable development goals (i.e., to achieve gender equality, promoting full and productive employment and decent work for all, and reducing existing inequalities). Given all of this, accurately measuring women’s empowerment systematically across a variety of settings is imperative. As such, studying innovations in measuring women’s agency, empowerment, or decision-making power is an active area of research (Malapit et al. 2019; Donald et al. 2020; Laszlo et al. 2020; Buvinic et al. 2020; Quisumbing et al. 2023; Jayachandran et al. 2023).

Synopsis: Unlocking agricultural efficiency: A stochastic frontier analysis of smallholder farmers in Rwanda

This study assesses the technical efficiency of smallholder farmers in Rwanda, with a focus on maximizing crop output value and identifying the socioeconomic drivers that shape technical efficiency.

Harvesting change: The impact of climate change on Africa’s agriFood systems

Africa is one of the most exposed continents to climate change. While global temperature has risen by 0.2°C per decade since 1991, in Africa the rate is faster, reaching 0.3°C (WMO 2022). Yet Africa contributes only modestly to climate change. Indeed, the continent emits 7 times less greenhouse gas compared to Europe and 15 times compared to North America (IPCC, 2023). In addition to rising temperatures, climate change affects Africa through several channels, including an increase in ocean levels, variations in precipitations (droughts and heavy rains), plant pests and animal diseases. Climate change is also expected to contribute to a significant reduction in arable land in the continent (IPCC, 2023). The new CAADP strategy and action plan for 2026-2035 recognizes that Africa is the hardest hit by climate change and that the phenomenon is one of the major threats to Africa’s agricultural systems and food security in the coming years. All of these changes will affect agricultural production, a major challenge for Africa, as African economies and livelihoods remain heavily dependent on agriculture. Agriculture still represents 16% of Africa GDP with contributions ranging from 3% in Southern Africa to 25% in the eastern part of the continent. Due to the low level of labor productivity in agriculture, the sector’s contributions to total employment are higher than those of other sectors. By inducing structural changes in agricultural production, climate change will also affect trade flows by shifting comparative advantages between and within continents. Prices will also be affected. This Policy Brief i shows how Africa’s agricultural production and trade patterns are altered by climate change. It highlights the large impacts of climate change on agricultural production, reinforcing results from other work. It shows that the impacts on prices compound the production impacts on African economies and people given many countries in the region are net importers. However, the work also shows that there are substantial differences across the region in the size of the impacts.

When trade saves natural resources: Evidence from cereals trade in SADC

Africa is one of the continents most vulnerable to climate change. While global temperatures have risen by 0.2°C per decade since 1991, Africa has registered a 0.3°C increase (WMO, 2022). Beyond rising temperatures, Africa faces various related challenges, including rising sea levels, unpredictable rainfall leading to both droughts and severe storms, and increased threats from plant pests and animal diseases. As a result, the continent is expected to see a significant decline in arable land, further compromising its agricultural future. Specifically, southern Africa is highly climate vulnerable. Water scarcity is critical for food security, yet trade can help reallocate cereals from water-rich to water-scarce areas. Indeed one often-overlooked aspect in the discussion about trade and climate change is how trade can actually help combat climate change. Indeed, when production is shifted from places that have limited environmental resources to those that are rich in them, the ecological footprint of economic activities can be lessened. For instance, international and regional trade have the potential to conserve water on both global and regional scales by exporting water-intensive goods from regions that have high water efficiency or abundant water resources to those with less availability (Fracasso 2014), yielding a much more efficient allocation of water resources around the world. SADC’s own regional water policy recognizes comparative advantage in water as a basis for trade integration (SADC 2005). This policy note reviews virtual water trade in the SADC region and tests whether trade flows reflect countries’ comparative advantage in water endowment, with a focus on cereals. It first presents an overview of virtual water trade flows in the region and uses an econometric model to test the link between water endowments and the water content of trade flows. We conclude with a discussion and some policy implications.

Rice productivity in Myanmar: Assessment of the 2025 dry season and outlook for the 2025 monsoon

We analyze paddy rice productivity and profitability for the 2024 and 2025 dry seasons, using data from the Myanmar Agriculture Performance Survey (MAPS), conducted between August 11 to October 26, 2025. The survey covered plots managed by 872 paddy producers.

Nutrition and dietary quality in Sri Lanka: Insights from the 2024-2025 BRIGHT survey

Key findings and policy implications • Dietary quality in Sri Lanka – defined in terms of consumption levels of different healthy food groups – falls well short of the Sri Lankan Ministry of Health’s 2021 Food-Based Dietary Guidelines (FBDG) targets, with clear imbalances across food groups. • Heavy dependence on starchy staples. Starchy foods dense in calories but sparse in nutrients provide over 60% of total energy consumption, highlighting a strong over-consumption of rice. • Low consumption of nutrient-rich foods. Intakes of fruits, dark green leafy vegetables (DGLVs), and legumes are at only about one-third of the recommended levels. • Some households report zero consumption of healthy food groups. More than 30% of households report zero consumption of dairy foods in the past 7 days, while 15% report zero consumption of dark green leafy vegetables, and 5% zero fruit, indicating that important foods are absent from many household diets. • Multidimensional dietary deprivation. Nearly all Sri Lankan households are deprived in at least one food group. A typical deprived household falls below the reference threshold in six to seven of eight food groups and consumes only about 37% of the recommended amounts for the foods in which consumption is lower than recommended. • Significant dietary inequality across sectors. Dietary deprivation is most acute in the estate sector, while rural and urban areas fare moderately better. • There is a clear need to promote healthy dietary diversification, especially higher consumption of fruits, legumes, vegetables and dairy, while moderating excess consumption of starchy staples. • Institutionalize regular monitoring of diet deprivation, using the Reference Diet Deprivation (ReDD) index and other dietary indicators to guide targeted nutrition interventions. • Support further research on the drivers of dietary patterns in Sri Lanka to better understand its determinants and differences between sectors.

From pledges to action: NDC 3.0 for poverty reduction and climate justice in Nepal

Located in the heart of the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region, Nepal plays a vital geopolitical and ecological role in South Asia’s climate landscape. Although the country contributes less than 0.03 percent to global greenhouse gas emissions (MoFE 2020) and has extensive forest cover of 46 percent (MoFE 2025), it faces disproportionate risks from climate-induced disasters, such as glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), erratic monsoons, and prolonged droughts. The HKH region spans eight countries and hosts 10 major river basins and more than 87,000 square kilometers of glaciers, delivering water and ecosystem services to more than 1.9 billion people downstream (ICIMOD 2025a). Within this complex hydrological system, Nepal’s rivers—including the Koshi, Gandaki, and Karnali—not only sustain local livelihoods but also feed millions in India’s Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, and even parts of China. Climate justice is imperative in this context: Nepal’s low emissions profile stands in stark contrast to its high vulnerability (CVF 2024), requiring urgent attention to equity, adaptation finance, and inclusive development pathways. This policy note discusses Nepal’s role in climate justice diplomacy, examines the regional and country-level context of climate risk, and assesses Nepal’s third Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC 3.0) to reframe climate action through a justice-centered lens.

Accessing Aswesuma: Key findings on Sri Lanka’s new social protection program from the bright 2024-25 national survey

• We use the nationally representative BRIGHT 2024-25 survey to document Aswesuma access at the national and subnational level, and among poor and food-insecure households • At the time of the BRIGHT 2024-2025 survey, the Aswesuma program covered 29.1% of the Sri Lankan population compared to just 18.8% of the population under Samurdhi in 2016: a 10.3 percentage point improvement. However, at the time of the survey, the Aswesuma program has still not reached its target of 35% national population coverage. • Encouragingly, the largest expansion of cash transfer access was in upland (Estate) districts, who had limited access to cash transfers under the previous Samurdhi program • Aswesuma access among poor populations was highest in the Estate sector (56%), followed by the rural (46%) and urban populations (44%) • Aswesuma transfers are unlikely to reduce employment or other income-generating activities among the poor, as Aswesuma cash transfers only represent 19% of the expenditures of the poorest 20% of households, and just 10% for the next poorest group. • While Aswesuma transfers may protect households against low calorie intake (hunger), Aswesuma households still have low-quality diets, under-consuming fruits, vegetables, dairy, and legumes in particular • Nutritional knowledge is also much poorer among Aswesuma beneficiaries than the rest of the Sri Lankan population, particularly knowledge of key micronutrient-rich foods • These results imply the need for a wide range of policy-oriented research and follow-up surveys on drivers of access to Aswesuma, but also impacts of Aswesuma on key welfare indicators • There is also a need to explore and improve multisectoral coordination between Aswesuma and other programs on child nutrition and development, as well as women’s empowerment.

The effects of a secondary school scholarship on youth outcomes: Evidence from a randomized trial

Although primary school enrollment has steadily increased in sub-Saharan Africa in recent years, enrollment in secondary school remains generally low in comparison with other regions (Evans and Mendez Acosta 2021). In Ethiopia, enrollment in lower secondary school roughly doubled over the past decade to reach an estimated 46 percent in 2021–2022, but substantial heterogeneity exists across rural and urban areas and across poorer and richer households (Tiruneh and Molla 2024). In rural areas, long distances from home to school often pose a substantial barrier to secondary school enrollment, especially for poor households. In addition to the real or perceived risks of insecurity linked to attendance – encountering insecure conditions along the route, or risks for youth who reside away from home to attend – these lengthy distances imply substantial out-of-pocket costs for transportation or accommodation, and households may struggle to manage these costs (Leight et al. 2022). Limited post-primary educational attainment can have substantial adverse effects for youth, limiting their opportunities for future employment and income generation and increasing the likelihood of early marriage for girls (Giacobino et al. 2024). This project note reports the main findings from a randomized trial conducted in rural Ethiopia, which assessed the effects of a scholarship for lower secondary school students (ninth and tenth grade) targeting extremely poor youth. We find that the provision of a scholarship led to a 12-percentage-point increase in the probability of secondary school enrollment two years later compared to youth who did not receive a scholarship, an effect that was greatest among students who received early notification about the scholarship (one year before eligibility). There was no change in attendance or academic performance, suggesting that students in the treatment arm performed as well as those in the control arm. Some evidence also indicated a small decline in the likelihood of child marriage and an enhancement in youth well-being. Overall, the findings suggest that the scholarship may be a valuable intervention to increase secondary school attainment, particularly if announced earlier; however, a third of youth who passed the primary school exam and were offered a scholarship still did not enroll. This suggests there are other important barriers to secondary school progression in this sample.

Food insecurity in post-crisis Sri Lanka: Evidence from the 2024-2025 BRIGHT survey

We assess food insecurity in Sri Lanka using the BRIGHT National Household Survey data for 2024-2025, which collected data on the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES) developed by the FAO. • 32.8% of households in Sri Lanka experienced moderate or severe food insecurity in the 12 months prior to the survey, with 29.6% classified as moderately and 3.2% classified as severely food insecure. In contrast, food insecurity was just 12% in the 2019 Household Income and Expenditure survey (HIES), such that food insecurity has almost tripled since the 2022 economic crisis. • A very high 54.5% of Estate households (households that reside in housing on an estate/plantation) experienced food insecurity (43.2% moderate, and 11.4% severe), compared to 35.3% of urban and 31.8% of rural households. Eastern (39.1%), Uva (38.5%), and Southern (38.1%) provinces recorded the highest food insecurity rates. • Dry-zone households show slightly higher moderate and severe insecurity (34.6%) than inter-mediate (31.1%) and wet zones (24.6%). • Households dependent on informal employment are more than twice as likely to report food in-security (41% moderate, 5% severe) compared to formal employment households (18% moderate, 1% severe). • Fishing households are the most food insecure across all livelihoods with 58% experiencing moderate or severe insecurity, including 10% reporting severe food insecurity. Households de-pendent on construction (41%), agriculture (38%), textiles/artisans (35%), manufacturing (29%), food and beverage preparation (27%) and services (23%) also reported high food insecurity. • Splitting by wealth quintiles, the poorest 20% of households in Sri Lanka have a food insecurity prevalence of 45% including 10% who are severely food insecure. Food insecurity declines as wealth increases but is still high for the second (34%) and middle quintiles (25%). • The FIES-based indicator reports much higher food insecurity in 2024 (32.8%) than the WFP’s alternative CARI method of estimating food insecurity (16%). • FIES-based measures can support more frequent monitoring of food insecurity in Sri Lanka via phone surveys and help assess the impacts of programs such as Aswesuma.

Climate shocks and climate smart agricultural adoption in Sri Lanka, 2024-2025

We assess the adoption of climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices and the role of climate shocks using the BRIGHT Integrated Household Survey data for 2024–2025. • Twenty percent of farmers faced severe climatic shocks, while 40 percent faced more moderate negative shocks. • The largest share of farmers reporting natural shocks lived in the dry zone. • Forty-four percent of farmers were negatively affected by pests and diseases, including 72 .per-cent of oilseed and tuber farmers. • Seventy-four percent of farmers reported that changing weather patterns affect their income. • Forty-one percent of farmers reported that they were currently using at least one climate smart agricultural practice (CSA). • Crop type strongly predicts CSA adoption. Vegetable, pulse, and maize farmers are significantly more likely to adopt CSA practices, with marginal effects indicating increases of roughly 16–17 percentage points. In contrast, rice cultivation is not significantly associated with adoption—im-portant given rice’s dominance in the country. • Adoption levels of CSA practices vary sharply across provinces. Eastern Province shows the highest adoption (66 percent), while Sabaragamuwa records the lowest adoption at just 14 per-cent. • Exposure to climate shocks increases CSA adoption. Experiencing a moderate or severe climate shock in the previous year is associated with a 6–7 percentage point increase in CSA adoption, suggesting that shocks are prompting adaptive responses. Policy Implications for Sri Lanka • Strengthen CSA adoption in lagging provinces. Sabaragamuwa, North Western, and Western show consistently low adoption despite exposure to climate risks. • Expand and tailor extension services to promote CSA for the most climate vulnerable farmers.

The state of agricultural extension services in Sri Lanka, 2024-2025

We assess the state of Sri Lanka’s agricultural extension services using the BRIGHT 2024-2025 national survey. We examine use of or access to extension by land size and wealth, farmers’ trust in different providers, and farmers use of innovative sources of extension, including digital channels.. • Fifty-five percent of Sri Lankan farmers accessed some form of extension in 2024/2025 • Public extension agents remain the most trusted source of advice, yet their reach differs sharply by region—from as high as 75% in North-Western Province to as low as 30% in Northern Province. • Access to agricultural extension varies widely across provinces, with the highest access in Northern Province (84%) and the lowest in Central and Western Provinces (around 44%). • In the Northern Province, despite low public provision, farmers compensate through strong reliance on input retailers (64%) and Farmers’ Organizations (71%), indicating robust informal ex-tension networks. • Extension access is strongly related to cultivated area and asset ownership. Only 40% of farmers cultivating less than 0.5 acres received any form of extension, compared to 71% among those with more than 3 acres. Similarly, only 39% of households in the lowest wealth quintile accessed extension, compared to 62% in the highest quintile. • Wealthier farmers and those with more cultivated acres not only access extension more frequently but also from a wider range of sources, underscoring inequality in information access and opportunity. • Digital channels, such as Facebook and other online groups, play a growing but still limited role, concentrated mainly in the Western Province where internet access is strongest. Policy Implications for Sri Lanka • Targeted efforts are needed to expand extension access in lagging regions—particularly Central, Western, and Uva Provinces—by strengthening reach of both public and non-public agents. • Dedicated actions are needed to expand extension services across a wider range of crops—particularly beyond rice and the traditional plantation sector—as well as across sub-sectors • Given the high trust and engagement within farmer associations, these organizations should be leveraged as key partners for training delivery, group learning, and scaling up new practices. • More research is needed on the effectiveness of different extension modalities, including digital

Water insecurity in Sri Lanka, 2024-2025: Evidence from the 2024-2025 BRIGHT survey

We assess water insecurity in Sri Lanka using the BRIGHT Integrated Household Survey data for 2024-2025. Key Findings • Compared to the 2016 DHS data, the 2024 BRIGHT results show moderate improvements in access to improved drinking water sources. Estate sector households show the greatest relative improvement, with the share using improved water sources increasing by approximately five percentage points. This shift is driven primarily by a 15-percentage-point rise in the use of protected wells, although nearly half (49%) of estate households continue to rely on rivers, springs, or tank water. • Most households in Sri Lanka report few insecurity experiences, and are therefore mostly water secure, with 90% not experiencing water insecurity. • Differences between groups are subtle and occur mainly between marginal and low levels of water security, rather than between fully secure and insecure households. • 68% of estate households (households on plantations), experienced at least water insecurity experience compared to only 28% of urban households and 33% of rural households. • Households in dry agroecological zones face slightly higher risks water insecurity (11%) com-pared to 9% of in both intermediate and wet zones. • Poverty is a key predictor of water insecurity. The poorest households are 6.8 times more likely to experience extreme water insecurity than the richest households. • Sri Lanka has lower levels of water insecurity than most other lower-middle income countries but needs to address poor water security in populations left behind. Improving water security in estate areas and in the dry zone should be national water security priorities

Vendors outside of markets in Viet Nam

The food environment represents the place in which demand for food meets supply: consumers purchase foods in the food environment, and food retailers market and sell their products. In many countries, the food environment is undergoing rapid changes as economies grow and populations urbanize, with the consequence that a larger share of food consumed is purchased by the end consumer, rather than being self produced (de Bruin and Holleman 2023). Viet Nam is no different: over time, the country’s growing and urbanizing economy has led to shifts in its food environment. This note focuses on one type of retailer in Viet Nam’s food environment: food vendors that exist outside of formal markets. These vendors typically sell their goods in a fixed location, unlike mobile vendors, and do business on a daily or near-daily basis from that location. This definition includes vendors in “toad markets,” which are vendors who set up right outside of official markets, and other vendors who work in a fixed location but lack a storefront. All such vendors are clearly part of the informal sector. These vendors play a small but important role in Viet Nam’s food environment, and almost all of them sell at least one component of a sustainable healthy diet. As a result, these vendors can help to improve the diets of Viet Nam’s population. This note uses two data sets to examine small vendors outside markets. The first is a listing exercise that enumerates all businesses selling food in the sampled wards of three districts: Dong Da, in urban Hanoi; Dong Anh, in peri-urban Hanoi; and Moc Chau, a rural district northwest of Hanoi. This survey was used as a sample frame for the second survey; the second one was designed to examine the constraints and opportunities faced by micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs) as they consider selling more healthy foods (Ceballos et al. 2023). Vendors outside of markets are one type of MSME in the food environment.

Multistakeholder platforms in transboundary waters: What do we know, and where should we go?

This policy brief synthesizes recent evidence on multistakeholder platforms (MSPs) in shared river basins and presents practical guidance for river basin organizations, development partners, and policymakers. It compares established basin-level MSP approaches across three basins (Nile, Zambezi, and Mekong) and describes how stakeholders in the Incomati and Maputo River Basins—shared across the Republic of South Africa, Eswatini, and Mozambique—built on these approaches to design their own MSP. This brief translates comparative evidence and field experience into a practical toolkit for advancing MSPs in shared basins.

Understanding recent prices increases of animal-source foods in Myanmar

The livestock sector in Myanmar represents a significant component of the national economy, contributing approximately 6 percent to the country’s GDP. Beyond its economic role, the sector provides critical livelihood opportunities for rural households and underpins the supply of animal-source foods (ASF), which are essential for enhancing dietary diversity and nutritional outcomes. A resilient and efficiently functioning livestock sector also generates important multiplier effects, contributing to poverty reduction, employment creation, and overall economic growth (Diao et al. 2024). This note summarizes recent structural and market developments in Myanmar’s livestock industry and examines their implications for ASF price dynamics.

Spatial analysis shows moderate yet significantly more vigorous crops in AICCRA communities compared to control communities

In southern Ghana, communities with multiple stakeholder CSA field demonstrations (CSA hubs) show significantly more vigorous crops based on satellite imagery from 2021 to 2025, compared to control communities.

Integrated pest management

The use of pesticides in agriculture has had mixed consequences. While pesticides have significantly increased agricultural productivity and food security by reducing yield losses to harmful organisms [1], their excessive use has led to severe environmental consequences. Inherently, pesticides are designed to protect plants from pests. However, their effects extend far beyond the targeted organisms. Pesticides occasionally contaminate soil [2], [3], [4], water [5], [6], and air [7], leading to widespread environmental pollution, reducing biodiversity and causing potential health risk to humans [8]. This happens through volatilization [9], spray drift [10], runoff from fields [11], and improper product management [12] such as improper disposal of empty containers or incorrect dosage [12]. The chemicals used in pesticides can persist in the environment, causing long-term harm to ecosystems [13]. They do not stay confined to the areas where they are applied; they can spread through air and water, affecting distant ecosystems and non-target species.

Waste to animal feed

Currently, Food Waste (FW) is a pressing global issue with significant environmental, social, and economic implications. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), approximately one-third of all food produced for human consumption ― almost 1.3 billion tons globally ― is lost or wasted each year . This wastage occurs throughout the food system, from farm to fork. However, FW in high-income countries mainly originates from food consumption whereas in low-income countries it comes from food production and food processing [1]. This reflects differences in consumers’ habits and behavior and in the technological underpinnings of local food systems. Regardless of which part of the food system FW originates from, it has serious consequences for food security [2], resource conservation [3], and climate change [4]. FW contributes to greenhouse gas emissions through various processes. Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, are emitted when FW is landfilled [5]. The total global amount of FW generates 3.3 billion tons of carbon dioxide emission annually [6]. Landfilling also contributes to the formation of leachate, a toxic liquid that can contaminate groundwater and surface water.

Agro-silvo-pastoralism

Agro-silvo-pastoralism is an agricultural practice combining crop cultivation (agro), forestry (silvo), and animal husbandry (pastoralism) within the same system. It is an integrated approach to land management, applicable to a wide range of ecological conditions [1] that aims to create a harmonious interconnection between its components, thereby maximizing overall system productivity, promoting production diversification and biodiversity, and ensuring sustainability [2]. Agro-silvo-pastoralism systems were already known during the Roman Empire; such systems are mentioned in works like “De Agri Cultura” by Cato (second century B.C.), “Naturalis Historia” by Pliny the Elder (first century B.C.), and “De Re Rustica” by Varro (37 B.C.) [3]. Archeological studies prove that the practice is rooted in the Bronze Age [4], [5]. In recent years, the interest in agro-silvo-pastoralism has been renewed because of its potential to sustain rural farming in marginal areas and to adapt to the challenges posed by climate change [6]. In Brazil, for example, areas under agro-silvo-pastoralism amount to 17 million hectares, with a potential to reach three times that number.

Intercropping

Over the last decades, crop yields in conventional farming and monocropping systems have increased globally, benefiting from advancements in plant breeding and from higher use of inputs, specifically water, fertilizers, and pesticides. However, the environmental, social, and economic sustainability of such high-input/high-output systems is questionable, and this requires revisiting the conventional farming and monocropping systems paradigm. Moreover, conventional agriculture and monocropping significantly impact biodiversity by reducing habitat diversity and increasing environmental degradation. Monocropping promotes genetic uniformity, leading to the decline of traditional crop varieties. Intensive agricultural practices, such as the extensive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, result in habitat fragmentation, soil degradation, and loss of soil microbial diversity, which are detrimental to various plants and wild animals.

Minimum tillage

Soil tillage represents a key agricultural management practice for crop production, serving multiple purposes. Primarily, it is used to control weeds and increase the soil organic matter mineralization rates, making nutrients more available to plants. Other potential benefits are improved soil aeration and water filtration. However, extensive use of tillage has proven unsustainable for soil maintenance and climate regulation. Deep plowing and other cultivation practices lead to soil degradation by increasing susceptibility to erosion [1], soil runoff [2], and by reducing microbial diversity and activity [3]. Minimum tillage and no-tillage (also known as zero-tillage) address these problems by reducing soil cultivation to a minimum, or entirely avoiding it, thus promoting less disruptive and potentially more sustainable agricultural management. Specifically, no-tillage eliminates traditional plowing practices with the use of direct seeding. To be effective, direct seeding is preceded by other land preparation practices, including chemical or mechanical weed control (e.g., slashing), removal of the previous crop residues, or cover crops to create a mulch layer. Crop residues are retained entirely, or at a suitable level to ensure complete soil coverage. Seeding is then done directly through the mulch layer or through narrow slits for seed placement. Occasionally, direct seeding can be done just before harvesting the previous crop. This practice, known as relay cropping, is used to reduce weed emergence during the period the land would otherwise lie fallow. Finally, direct seeding can be also done jointly with fertilizer and amendment applications. Minimum tillage is also promoted as a method to reduce air pollution, for instance in India, where previously farmers used to burn rice straw but now apply direct seeding on cut crop residues which are spread as mulch.

Farming with alternative pollinators

The relationship between plants and pollinators is widely recognized as one of the most significant forms of ecological interactions [1]. Without pollinators, numerous plant species could not reproduce. Additionally, many animals rely on plants for essential resources such as pollen and nectar. This relationship is remarkably frequent in nature, with an estimated 87% of flowering plants pollinating through animal interaction [2]. Consequently, pollinators are also essential for humanity, especially for their contribution to food security since they are necessary to produce various crop commodities [3]. The production of medicines, biofuels, and construction materials relies, to some extent, on the pollination carried out by animals. Finally, the livelihood of many people is based on beekeeping and honey gathering, which are ancient activities yet still important in many rural communities [3]. Pollination is a recognized ecosystem service, and its economic value has been assessed numerous times [4], [5], [6]. However, we witness a rapid biodiversity decline in terms of wild pollinators, which is caused by human activities [7]. Among the factors leading to this decline, the intensive and improper use of agrochemicals is arguably the most severe [8]. For instance, the practice of seed coating with systemic pesticides (such as Imidacloprid) affects the nectar and pollen, causing a potential threat to pollinators [9], [10]. Habitat fragmentation, loss, and degradation are also important drivers of the decline of wild pollinators. These can be caused by urbanization, removal of “waste places” like hedgerows and field margins, and (over)grazing and early cutting of hay meadows [8]. Climate change is an additional risk, interrupting the timely synchronization of plant-pollinator interactions

Micro-irrigation

Irrigation is an essential practice in many agricultural production systems. It is also one of the oldest interventions to nature implemented by humankind, since its origins trace back to almost 6000 BC [1]. Currently, agriculture accounts for 70% of all freshwater withdrawals globally, with irrigation being the primary driver. As shown in Figure 1, irrigation is closely linked to an increase in crop yields. On average at the global level, yields achieved under irrigation are almost double relative to rainfed yields, with potential for even greater yield increase in arid areas. Since water is a scarce resource, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions, satisfying the increased demand for irrigation water in agriculture has become a pressing global challenge, exacerbated by climate and demographic change, which will require an increased supply of food for a growing human population [2]. The high demand for irrigation water to support food production is linked to several types of nature losses, the most important of which is the risk of water resources depletion [3] and the subsequent negative impacts on water-related biodiversity and ecosystem services. Figure 2 illustrates the consumption rate of renewable water resources, highlighting how arid and semi-arid regions frequently surpass the natural replenishment rate of their water resources. Furthermore, irrigation can cause soil degradation by inducing changes in soil structure and increasing the risk of erosion [4]. Flood irrigation, in particular, can contribute to soil erosion by physically moving the soil parts. In arid and semi-arid regions, high evaporation rates of irrigation water from the soil surface can cause problems of salinization over time. In regions where irrigated agriculture is prevalent, these environmental risks significantly increase with water overconsumption or inefficient water use.

Organic ferilizers

Fertilization is a crucial aspect of soil management aimed at regulating the nutrient cycle and availability and supporting plant growth and increasing productivity. It involves the application of nutrients, either to the soil [1] or to plant foliage [2] to replenish optimal content in the soil and, ultimately, in the plants. Fertilization has always been an integral part of agricultural production, and its origins can be traced back to around 8000 BCE [3]. Over time the use of fertilizers has evolved, and application rates have significantly increased thanks to industrial processes [4] that enabled the production of low-priced and accessible synthetic fertilizers. Figure 1 shows the extent of the worldwide use of nitrogen-based fertilizers, the most typical nutrient applied in agriculture as it is often a yield-limiting nutrient.

Mechanical soil and water conservation

In semi-arid areas, where water scarcity and poor soil condition pose significant threats to agricultural production and to the livelihood of individual smallholders and communities, water and soil management are critical for food/water security. Limited renewable freshwater and erratic rainfall patterns in those areas restrict the reliance on irrigation, making water conservation strategies more pressing and necessary [1]. Moreover, implementing advanced irrigation systems may be challenging due to limited resources and a lack of technical expertise [2]. For smallholder farmers, the adoption of irrigation systems, such as drip irrigation, is limited by further constraints such as high costs, limited access to finance, lack of technical support, and may not be suitable for all local conditions and cropping systems [3]. Under these constraints, promoting water and soil conservation strategies practices as part of a broader water management package to increase agricultural productivity at the farm level becomes crucial for ensuring sustainable agricultural production.

Biocontrol

Worldwide, the estimated pesticide use in agriculture is 2.7 million tons (Mt) of active ingredients (FAOSTAT). Despite their accessibility and efficacy, chemical pesticides raise numerous environmental concerns. Chemical pesticides can pollute ecosystems by contaminating soil, air, and freshwater through various pathways, including volatilization [1], spray drift [2], runoff from fields [3], and improper product management [4], like improper disposal of empty containers or incorrect dosage. This contamination can have detrimental effects on aquatic ecosystems [5], harm animals [6], and pose risks to human health through contaminated drinking water sources [7]. The second major concern is the undesired impacts on biodiversity: The use of chemical pesticides is frequently linked to a decrease in populations of non-target species [8], [9], [10], and can also lead to the development of resistance by target species [11], [12], further unbalancing the equilibrium of species populations. Moreover, resistance to pesticides induces the use of alternative and often more potent chemical products, further perpetuating the cycle of environmental harm.

Crop rotation

Crop rotation is a critical agricultural practice employed to mitigate the adverse effects associated with monoculture systems. Monoculture, which refers to the cultivation of a single crop over a whole farm or area [1], has seen a constant spread worldwide since its early instances, such as the Caribbean sugarcane plantation in the 18th Century [2]. Among the many reasons concurring in the diffusion of monoculture, increased profitability through economies of scale is probably the main driver. Concentration on one crop allows for more efficient planting and harvesting, lower investment in diverse and costly equipment, reduced need for a workforce with specialized knowledge, and a comprehensive understanding of specific value chains and available markets

Green manure

Soil management is a critical aspect of crop production for its impact on environmental and economic sustainability. Ordinarily, in annual cropping systems, land lays fallow in the period that follows the harvest of one crop and precedes the sowing of the next. This period of non-cultivation helps reconstitute the soil fertility and water reserves [1], [2]. However, improperly maintaining the land fallow is shown to deplete soil quality and harm the environment. Without vegetation cover, the soil is more exposed to erosion [3], surface runoff [4], and degradation of its organic content [4]. Erosion and surface runoff not only reduce soil fertility, leading to an inefficient use of resources [3], but also pose a potential threat of freshwater contamination with nitrates and other agricultural by-products [5]. The degradation of soil organic matter has severe impacts when not reconstituted and preserved. The soil’s capacity to hold water [3] and nutrients decreases, making control of those critical inputs complex for farmers. Climate regulation is also affected: soil organic matter stores carbon within the soil ecosystem, but its degradation releases it into the atmosphere, exacerbating greenhouse gas levels [6]

Multipurpose trees

Industrialized food systems and commercial forestry, characterized by monoculture practices, have contributed to significant land degradation [1], biodiversity loss [2], and increase in greenhouse gas emissions [3]. As opposed to the detrimental trends caused by monoculture, agroforestry, and growing multipurpose trees in particular, stands out as a production system that provides multiple benefits [4]. Multipurpose trees are frequently distinctive components of agroforestry systems, although they are rare in commercial forestry and conventional agriculture. The conservation ― or cultivation ― of multipurpose trees is often economically motivated in a multiple-output land-use system, but it can also be driven by ecological and environmental reasons. They are deliberately kept and managed for more than one preferred use, product, or service. They provide food, fodder, fuel, and medicine, while also contributing to soil fertility, water conservation, and biodiversity enhancement1

Sustainable manure management

Manure is any excrement and urine of farmed animals and is considered a resource or waste, depending on where and how much is produced, and how it is used. It is an essential source of nutrients for plants, and it has been used for fertilizing soil and enhancing crop production since the advent of agriculture [1]. It reduces the reliance on chemical fertilizers in situations where they can be hard to find (or to afford) and in contexts like organic agriculture, where chemical fertilizers are avoided for ethical or policy reasons. Manure production worldwide is increasing [2] due to the growing demand for meat and animal-based products [3]. This trend raises concerns about the potential threat to ecosystems posed by manure, since several factors can contribute to environmental pollution hazards [4]. Manure contains high levels of nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus. When manure is applied to soil in excessive amounts, or during periods of heavy rainfall, these nutrients can enter nearby water bodies through the processes of leaching and runoff [5]. High levels of nitrates in water bodies can lead to excessive and rapid growth of algae, causing oxygen depletion and eutrophication [6]. This process can lead to the death of fish and other aquatic organisms that depend on oxygen to survive, ultimately resulting in habitat degradation and loss of biodiversity [7]. In fact, untreated manure spread onto soils is generally considered the principal cause of eutrophication [8], [9] and of nitrate freshwater pollution from agricultural sources [10]

Integrated nutrient management

Soil fertilization is a fundamental practice for increasing crop yields and ensuring sustainable agricultural production. As shown in Figure 1, the use of fertilizers has been growing over the years, reflecting the importance of fertilization in all agricultural systems. However, several environmental issues and potential health risks arise from incorrect approaches to fertilization in both high-income and low-income countries.

Multidimensional poverty and vulnerability in Sri Lanka, 2024-2025

We assess multidimensional poverty and vulnerability in Sri Lanka using the BRIGHT Integrated Household Survey data for 2024-2025. Nearly one quarter of all Sri Lankans are multidimensionally poor, and nearly one half are multidimensionally vulnerable. The multidimensionally poor are deprived in 45% of the weighted poverty indicators, while the multidimensionally vulnerable are deprived in 37% of the weighted vulnerability indicators. Estate areas have the highest rates of multidimensional poverty (63%) and vulnerability (83%), but most of the multidimensionally poor (77%) and vulnerable (79%) live in rural areas because nearly 8 out of 10 Sri Lankans live there. Central province has the highest multidimensional poverty rate (38%), while Northern (75%), Eastern (65%), and Uva (60%) provinces have the highest multidimensional vulnerability rates. Western province has one of the lowest multidimensional poverty rates (17%) and the lowest multidimensional vulnerability rates (35%). The main sources of multidimensional poverty are health deprivations and standard of living (assets and basic services) deprivations. The main sources of multidimensional vulnerability are shocks, unproductive debt, poor health, and inadequate schooling. Policy Implications for Sri Lanka: The government of Sri Lanka should consider using multidimensional poverty and vulnerability measures to re-assess district-level poverty for the first-stage allocation of Aswesuma resources. Refinements and/or extensions of these multidimensional poverty and vulnerability measures could prove useful for assessing potential policy levers for reducing current poverty and the vulnerability of households to future poverty.

Climate-smart agriculture for sustainable agriculture in Bhutan: Adoption, policy barriers, and way forward

This discussion brief is part of the knowledge management and capacity building component of the Consortium for Scaling-up Climate-Smart Agriculture in South Asia (C-SUCSeS) project. C-SUCSeS is a joint initiative between the SAARC1 Agriculture Centre (SAC), International Fund for Agriculture Development (IFAD) and International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). It aims to promote bottomup applied research on climate-smart agriculture (CSA) technologies through active participation of smallholder farmers based on the participatory research experiences in the region.

Climate-smart agriculture technologies in Nepal: Adoption, policy barriers, and way forward

This discussion brief is part of the knowledge management and capacity building component of the Consortium for Scaling-up Climate-Smart Agriculture in South Asia (C-SUCSeS) project. CSUCSeS is a joint initiative between the SAARC1 Agriculture Centre (SAC), International Fund for Agriculture Development (IFAD) and International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). It aims to promote bottom-up applied research on climate-smart agriculture (CSA) technologies through active participation of smallholder farmers based on the participatory research experiences in the region.

Climate-smart agriculture in Bangladesh: Adoption, policy barriers and way forward

This discussion brief is part of the knowledge management and capacity building component of the Consortium for Scaling-up Climate-Smart Agriculture in South Asia (C-SUCSeS) project. C-SUCSeS is a joint initiative between the SAARC1 Agriculture Centre (SAC), International Fund for Agriculture Development (IFAD) and International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). It aims to promote bottomup applied research on climate-smart agriculture (CSA) technologies through active participation of smallholder farmers based on the participatory research experiences in the region.

Agricultural input retailers in Myanmar: Insights from the 2025 monsoon season

This Research Note presents results from an August 2025 phone survey of 227 agricultural input retailers – who provide agricultural inputs and informal credit to farmers – in Myanmar’s major agro-ecological zones. Key Findings • Input sales declined sharply in the 2025 monsoon relative to 2024. Fewer retailers sold inorganic fertilizers and pesticides, and aggregate sales for those who did sell declined by 31 percent for inorganic fertilizer and 10 percent for pesticides. • The decline is not solely due to supply shortages: smaller areas planted, weaker farm profits, and conflict have dampened demand, while climate change and the 2025 earthquake add to input market stress. Two-thirds of retailers cite lower input demand from climate change in the past three years, and earthquake impacts – while more localized – disrupted market access and areas planted. • Transport remains the dominant business disruption. Even with a slight drop in overall reported disruptions compared to 2024, transport problems – higher costs, checkpoints and roadblocks – still dominate. Long input supply chains dependent on imports and flowing through Yangon mean that checkpoints and higher costs compound as inputs reach rural farmers. • Farmer finances are stressed, especially in rice-dominant areas. Farmers are asking for and taking more credit from input retailers. This likely reflects tighter liquidity following the recent global rice price decline, which has reduced incentives and profitability for monsoon paddy. • Credit provision is expanding but adding risk. More retailers are providing credit to farmers and sourcing their inputs on credit from suppliers. Yet, two-thirds of retailers that provided credit in 2024 still have unpaid debts from farmers, raising the risks of cascading financial stress. • Measures to ease transport constraints, stabilize access to imported fertilizers and pesticides, and expand formal credit options for both farmers and retailers would help sustain this essential link in the agrifood system.

Cash, food, and vouchers: An overview of the evidence

The choice of different modalities for transferring resources to extremely poor households—food provided in-kind, cash, or intermediate modalities such as vouchers—has long been the subject of active debate in both policy and research. This note provides an overview of the recent evidence around the relative effectiveness of cash and food aid, drawing on studies conducted over the last 20 years around the world. Each modality has some potential advantages. Cash transfers are flexible in allowing recipients to use resources to meet a range of material needs (including, but not limited to food); and when they do choose to purchase food, allows them to choose a basket of items that is optimal based on their preferences. (The corresponding disadvantage of food transfers is that if recipients de sire nonfood items, they have to resell food for funds, often at a nontrivial transaction cost.) Cash transfers are often easier and lower-cost to deliver (particularly given the substantial growth of electronic payment systems) compared with the more complex logistical requirements of delivering food, especially perishable food. They are also generally less observable, potentially rendering them less likely to generate stigma or demands for sharing from nonrecipients. Cash can also have indirect beneficiaries through positive spillover effects in the local economy, though the evidence base for this is not large, and suggests that spillovers may be negative in some contexts.

Cash transfers and inflation: An overview of the evidence

Cash transfer programs are a leading form of social assistance, reaching up to 21 percent of the population in at least 68 low- and middle-income countries (World Bank 2025). Between 1980 and 2023, a total of 1.4 million papers were produced on the matter (Gentilini 2024) and more have been published since. While the design and impact of these and related programs have been closely studied (Banerjee et al. 2024), much less is known about whether or not cash transfer programs cause increases in the market price of good and services—that is, inflation. By reducing the purchasing power of money, program-driven inflation can diminish the positive impacts of cash transfers for recipients and create a negative spillover for nonrecipients, thus undermining program aims of improving social welfare. Recent literature on cash transfers and inflation is limited and often described as dichotomous: on one side, Egger et al. (2022) and other studies find little to no effect, while, on the other side, Filmer et al. (2023) find sizable and alarming inflationary effects on selected commodities. However, a closer look at these and other papers reveals that their results are less contradictory than they first appear. Rather, the whole body of the current literature is congruous with the hypothesis that cash transfers have minimal average effects on prices for most market goods; but these transfers can cause inflation where they significantly increase market demand for goods for which supply is relatively inelastic. This review proceeds as follows. We first present a simple conceptual model that illustrates the theoretical basis for this hypothesis, followed by an overview of the studies included in the review and their key differences. The next section presents a synthesis of the main findings in the existing empirical evidence. We then look at related research just outside the purview of this review. The conclusion discusses key takeaways.

Malawi: Cost effective options for inclusive and sustainable development

In this policy brief, we present findings of a systematic evaluation and ranking of investment options for Malawi’s agrifood system based on their cost-effectiveness in achieving multiple development outcomes, including agrifood gross domestic product (GDP) growth, agrifood job creation, poverty reduction, declining undernourishment, and lowering diet deprivation. Additionally, the study assesses their environmental footprint, focusing on water consumption, land use, and emissions. Investments in small and medium enterprise (SME) processors, seed systems, and farmers credit are shown to be the most cost-effective at driving improvements in social outcomes, like poverty and undernourishment. They are also highly ranked in terms of expanding agrifood GDP and employment. Investments in extension and advisory services for livestock, SME traders, and seed subsidy also rank high. However, many cost-effective investments have relatively high environmental footprints, which highlights potential tradeoffs. The study further reveals shifts in the cost-effectiveness ranking of in vestment options overtime and when extreme production shocks occur.

Investing in innovative food systems solutions in challenging contexts

Humanitarian agencies are in a race against time to save lives in contexts where economies have collapsed as hunger is aggravated by conflicts and extreme weather, among other factors. Take Nigeria, for example. Across the country lives and livelihoods are being shattered by conflict and climate shocks – once a breadbasket, the northern regions now rely heavily on humanitarian food assistance. The numbers speak for themselves: 30.6 million people are food insecure – 10 million people in three northern states; 17 million children are malnourished – the highest number in Africa, second highest globally after India. Farmers are cut off from their fields. Traders struggle to move goods through dangerous or impassable roads. Millions are displaced. And yet amid this fragility pockets of resilience are emerging in areas where conflict has subsided such that some farmers can return to their farms.

Senegal assessment [of the PEDAL project]

For nearly three decades, Senegal has been recognized as a regional leader in advancing nutrition, reducing under-five stunting from 34 percent in 1992 to 19 percent in 2014 (Kampman et al. 2017), and further to 15.1 percent by 2023 (ANSD and ICF 2024). This progress has been underpinned by a multi-sectoral and decentralized approach, with local governments playing an increasingly central role in policy implementation. Large-scale food fortification (LSFF) has been a cornerstone of this agenda, with Senegal—alongside Nigeria—pioneering fortification standards in the 2000s for edible oil, wheat flour, and salt, and subsequently institutionalizing the approach through the 2006 Strategic Plan for the Fortification of Foods and two successive national fortification strategies, the most recent of which was launched in May 2025. Yet despite these achievements, Senegal now faces mounting fiscal pressures, shifting donor priori-ties, and persistent micronutrient challenges, all of which threaten to slow or reverse momentum around LSFF.

Addressing data deficiency in CAADP’s poverty reduction commitment

This policy brief examines Africa’s data reporting performance on the commitment to halve poverty under the fourth CAADP Biennial Review (BR) of the Malabo Declaration. Data availability is central to tracking progress, yet approximately 40 percent of the required data was missing at the continental level, with significant disparities across regions, indicators, and countries. Central Africa exhibited the highest rate of missing data, while Western Africa reported the lowest and achieved the highest BR scores. The analysis reveals a strong negative correlation between data missing rates and BR performance scores, indicating that improved reporting can enhance the visibility of positive policy outcomes. However, high-quality data alone is not sufficient—outcomes also depend on effective policy design and implementation. The review process uncovered persistent data quality challenges, particularly the presence of extreme outlier values that undermine the reliability and comparability of reported results. These anomalies—such as implausible agricultural growth rates or disproportionate reductions in poverty—highlight weaknesses in data validation and signal a need for strengthened national data governance. The brief recommends institutionalizing the BR process, creating Kampala commitment specific data clusters, and investing in capacity building to improve data consistency and utilization. Strengthening national data systems is essential to achieving the poverty reduction goals of the Kampala Declaration.

Women’s empowerment in Ghana’s agriculture sector: Insights from the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index

Key messages • Gender disparities in agriculture persist in Ghana, particularly in land ownership, credit access, and decision-making power, limiting women’s productivity and contribution to food security. • The Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) has been instrumental in revealing these gender gaps in northern Ghana, but similar data are lacking for other regions, hindering national-level policy responsiveness. • Targeted interventions, such as securing land rights for women, improving access to financial services, and promoting participation in farmer-based organizations, are critical to advancing women’s empowerment and achieving gender-equitable agricultural development.

Deploying high-frequency market data to estimate the cost of recommended diets: Recent trends in Rwanda

This study estimates the cost and affordability of recommended diets in Rwanda from April 2019 to December 2024 using high-frequency market price data. By deploying standardised methods for healthy diet costs to eSoko data (www.esoko.gov.rw), and local food based dietary guidelines, we calculate the monthly cost of recommended diets at the district level. Key findings reveal significant dietary cost fluctuations, with nominal costs increasing 67% between June 2022 and October 2023, coinciding directly with Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. The research also identifies affordability challenges; by mid-2023, and again in late 2024, where up to 70% of wage earners could not afford a recommended diet. Spatial variations were also evident, with diet costs differing between rural and urban areas, and across districts bordering different countries, with the highest dietary costs observed along the Democratic Republic of Congo border and the least expensive along the border of Tanzania. Utilizing Rwanda’s eSoko data platform, the study demonstrates the value of high-frequency, spatially explicit data for understanding food system dynamics. The findings call for policy actions to consider dietary affordability, particularly for low-income groups, and suggest that Rwanda’s data collection approach could serve as a benchmark for other countries.

Tractor service providers in Myanmar: Early insights from the 2025 monsoon season

This note presents results from a July–August 2025 phone survey of 401 tractor service providers (TSPs)—who play a vital role in enabling timely land preparation and planting— offering early insights into the 2025 monsoon season. Key Findings • Acres prepared by TSPs declined by 12 percent compared to the previous year (11 percent in the Dry Zone, 17 percent in the Delta), largely reflecting weaker rice price incentives in the Delta and insecurity in the Dry Zone. • Lower demand for services was reported by 55 percent of TSPs compared to the previous year, and 40 percent faced operating restrictions, mainly due to securityrelated movement constraints – including new restrictions in Ayeyarwady. • Nominal service charges rose by an average of 16 percent from the previous year, driven by rising costs of fuel, repairs, and operators, along with reduced availability of these inputs. • Most TSPs (87 percent) extended credit to their clients, usually without interest, making them an important source of informal credit for farmers. • Cash flow problems affected 31 percent of TSPs, driven by declining revenues (50 percent) and rising operating costs (65 percent). Many coped by borrowing or selling assets. With high inflation, service charges likely failed to rise in real terms, adding to the financial pressures they faced. Recommended Actions • De-risk credit for mechanization services by sharing repayment risks or expanding access to affordable credit for farmers, reducing the financial burden on TSPs while maintaining access to services. • Improve mobility and security for TSP operations through greater transparency at checkpoints, fewer required permissions, and safer roads in conflict-affected areas. • Stabilize fuel and machinery costs and availability by facilitating imports, easing access to foreign exchange, and strengthening distribution networks to reduce operating pressures on TSPs. • Support training and retention of machine operators to address widespread shortages driven by outmigration and insecurity, ensuring service quality and machine upkeep.

Trade, not aid? The emerging donor strategy and its implications for Africa’s agrifood systems

Key messages 1. The United States is shifting its development engagement in Africa from aid to trade, emphasizing commercial partnerships, private sector development, and export-oriented growth. This shift is not unique to the United States; similar trends are being seen in Europe, China, and Japan, reflecting a global swing toward trade-first or business development strategies. 2. If well aligned, this approach can reinforce African priorities as defined in the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP) 2026–2035 Strategy, the Kampala Declaration, and national agricultural investment plans. Trade-first strategies map directly onto CAADP’s six strategic objectives, including agro-industrialization, food security, inclusivity, resilience, financing, and governance. 3. These strategies can also support implementation of the African Continental Free Trade Area, especially through investment in trade corridors, logistics, standards systems, and regulatory cooperation. However, there are risks of misalignment if initiatives prioritize donor or investor interests over inclusive transformation, public goods provision, and food systems resilience. 4. As articulated in discussions during the recent 4th International Conference on Financing for Development, consensus is building for Africa to move beyond aid and propel growth through private sector development. 5. African governments and partners must also go beyond coordination and seriously consider the institutional and political work required to steer this opportunity toward the public good. This consideration will require investing in regulatory capacity, protecting public goods, confronting corruption and capital flight, and ensuring that trade and investment flows are transparent, accountable, and inclusive. Without this, trade-first strategies risk reinforcing existing inequalities, undermining food systems resilience, and turn-ing agrifood transformation into an elite project. 6. Strategic statecraft—rooted in evidence, integrity, and public accountability—is essential to ensure that this shift delivers not just markets but also meaningful structural transformation through industrial policy. 7. The pivot to “trade, not aid” by global partners reflects a broader retreat from long-term development commitments. But it must also be recognized as a shift in priority from shared development outcomes to strategic self-interest, market capture, and influence. 8. Africa cannot be viewed as an open market to be carved up, claimed, or divided. African countries must insist on strategic alignment, mutual accountability, and respect for national development priorities—or risk having their food systems and economic futures being shaped by agendas that do not serve them.

Aligning AfCFTA and CAADP for Africa’s agrifood systems future

Key messages AfCFTA and CAADP are Africa’s twin engines for structural transformation, but their success depends on deliberate alignment. While AfCFTA drives regional integration through trade liberalization, CAADP focuses on building resilient, inclusive, and sustainable agrifood systems. • There is strong strategic complementarity between the two frameworks, especially in goals related to competitiveness, private sector development, and integration of regional value chains. But alignment weakens at the level of implementation—risking policy incoherence and missed opportunities. • Tensions between AfCFTA and CAADP implementation exist around tariff liberalization, domestic policy space, and sector readiness, with risks that liberalized trade could outpace capacity of fragile agriculture sectors to compete, adapt, and benefit. • Food security, equity, and environmental resilience—central to CAADP—are recognized in AfCFTA objectives and justify certain exceptions yet remain only weakly embedded in its implementation protocols. • Institutional silos and fragmented infrastructure strategies could undermine coherence, with risks of trade and agriculture ministries, as well as regional and continental bodies, operating separately. • Strategic coordination, sequencing, and governance reform are essential. Alignment of AfCFTA and CAADP is not automatic—it must be designed, negotiated, and sustained to deliver on Africa’s transformation promise. • Bridging AfCFTA and CAADP is not a one-time alignment exercise but rather a strategic process of political, institutional, and analytical interaction that must be continuously revisited and actively managed if it is to deliver on the continent’s shared aspirations for prosperity, food security, and sustainability.

Harnessing livestock for climate action and food security: A strategic opportunity for Africa and the Global South

Crop insurance for climate resilience: Priorities for South Africa’s G20 Presidency

This policy brief argues that South Africa’s G20 Presidency offers a pivotal opportunity to elevate crop insurance as a core instrument for strengthening climate resilience across Africa. As droughts, floods and weather variability intensify, climate risks increasingly threaten smallholder farmers who rely on rain-fed production, undermining livelihoods and regional food security. The brief highlights crop insurance as a practical risk-transfer mechanism that can safeguard incomes, stabilise food supply, and protect vulnerable households from climate-related shocks. It outlines how crop insurance aligns closely with key G20 working groups—Environment & Climate Sustainability, Disaster Risk Reduction, and Agriculture—each emphasizing adaptation, inclusive risk-sharing and resilient food systems. To realise this potential, the brief calls for investment-enabling policies, innovative financing suited to smallholders, and stronger integration of insurance within climate-risk management strategies, positioning crop insurance as a scalable and actionable priority for South Africa’s G20 agenda.

Typology of Kampala Declaration Activities

Key messages 1. The Kampala Declaration promotes multilevel coherence in agrifood systems investment by aligning National Agricultural Investment Plans (NAIPs) and Regional Agricultural Investment Plans (RAIPs) across Africa. 2. The green–yellow–blue typology employed in this brief is a critical innovation that helps classify and harmonize activities by their governance level—national (blue), regional/ REC (green), and continental/multi-REC (yellow). 3. A majority of activities (132) identified in the CAADP Strategy and Action Plan 2026–2035 are multilevel (green + yellow + blue), indicating broad intent for integrated implementation, but also emphasizing the need for strong coordination among all governance tiers. 4. Blue-only activities (74) dominate, revealing a tendency toward national responsibility, which still needs to be strategically aligned with REC and African Union (AU) initiatives. 5. Continental leadership remains weak, with few AU-led (yellow-only) initiatives, suggesting a policy gap in pan-African coordination and oversight—particularly in inclusivity, financing, and resilience. 6. Governance and trade-related interventions show the highest levels of harmonization, making them potential models for other domains such as food security, inclusivity, and climate resilience. 7. Inclusivity and resilience are under-prioritized at the regional and continental levels, requiring policy reframing that treats them as shared public goods rather than local concerns. 8. RECs are pivotal to the successful implementation of CAADP Agenda but are under- resourced, requiring enhanced mandates, planning tools, and inter-REC collaboration to execute cross-border and multicountry initiatives effectively. 9. Successful implementation hinges on institutional reforms, sustained political will, and capacity building, ensuring the Declaration translates into real, coherent, and transformative action across Africa’s agrifood systems. CAADP KAMPALA DECLARATION POLICY NOTE 3 AUGUST

Implications of exchange rate overvaluation and world price shocks for PNG

The large inflow of foreign capital to fund PNG investments in natural gas pipeline and processing infrastructure resulted in a surge in inflation beginning in 2011. Costs of production of tradable goods such as coffee and palm oil rose more (in kina terms) than their output prices, reducing the profitability of these sectors. These price distortions have continued to the present day, as restrictions on access to foreign exchange (mainly through delays in the release of funds) as demand for foreign exchange exceeds supply made available to the public. This policy note reviews PNG’s exchange rate policies and uses an economy-wide simulation model1 to quantify the impacts of these distortions. We conclude with a discussion of policy implications, highlighting the effects of a possible devaluation / depreciation of the kina.

Zambia: Cost effective options for inclusive and sustainable development

In this policy brief, we present findings of a systematic evaluation and ranking of investment options for Zambia’s agrifood system based on their cost-effectiveness in achieving multiple development outcomes, including agrifood gross domestic product (GDP) growth, agrifood job creation, poverty reduction, declining undernourishment, and lowering diet deprivation. Additionally, the study assesses their environmental footprint, focusing on water consumption, land use, and emissions. Investments in small and medium enterprise (SME) traders and processors are shown to be the most cost-effective at driving improvements in social outcomes, like poverty and undernourishment. They are also highly ranked in terms of expanding agrifood GDP and employment. Expansion in extension and advisory services for livestock, rural roads, farmers credit, and seed systems also rank high. How ever, many cost-effective investments have relatively high environmental footprints, which highlights potential tradeoffs. The study further reveals shifts in the cost-effectiveness ranking of investment options overtime and when extreme production shocks occur.